@article{brondfield_cognitive_2021,

title = {The Cognitive Load of Inpatient Consults: Development of the Consult Cognitive Load Instrument and Initial Validity Evidence},

author = {Sam Brondfield and Alexander Blum and Kewchang Lee and Marcia Linn and Patricia S O’Sullivan},

url = {https://journals.lww.com/academicmedicine/abstract/9000/the_cognitive_load_of_inpatient_consults_.96679.aspx},

doi = {10.1097/ACM.0000000000004178},

issn = {1040-2446},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-06-01},

urldate = {2021-06-07},

journal = {Academic Medicine},

volume = {Publish Ahead of Print},

abstract = {Purpose:  

 Fellows and residents provide inpatient consultations. Though consults vary considerably, measuring the associated cognitive load (CL) is key to guiding faculty on how to optimize learning during consults. However, existing CL instruments, such as the unidimensional Paas scale, cannot separate the 3 components of CL and may miss the nuances of consult CL. Therefore, the authors developed the Consult Cognitive Load (CCL) instrument to measure the 3 CL components during consults. 

 Method:  

 In 2018\textendash2019, the authors developed the CCL at the University of California, San Francisco, using Wilson’s constructive approach to measurement. To generate content and response process validity evidence, the authors consulted the literature and experts to generate construct maps, items, and a scoring rubric and conducted cognitive interviews. They administered the CCL to internal medicine and psychiatry trainees across 5 University of California campuses and used Rasch family and linear regression models to assess internal structure validity and relationships to key predictor variables. They compared the CCL with the Paas scale using Wright maps and used latent correlations to support separating CL into 3 components. 

 Results:  

 Analysis revealed appropriate fit statistics, appropriate mean respondent location increases across all levels, threshold banding, and expected relationships with key predictor variables. The CCL provided more coverage of the 3 CL components compared to the Paas scale. Correlations among the 3 CL components were not strong, suggesting that the CCL offers more nuance than a unidimensional measure of CL in the context of consults. 

 Conclusions:  

 This study generated initial validity evidence to support the CCL’s use as a measure of consult CL and supports measuring the 3 CL components separately rather than as a single construct in the context of consults. Learners and faculty could compare learner CCL scores to reference scores to promote reflection, metacognition, and coaching.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{boda_longitudinal_2021,

title = {Longitudinal impact of interactive science activities: Developing, implementing, and validating a graphing integration inventory},

author = {Phillip A Boda and Shruti Bathia and Marcia C Linn},

url = {https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/tea.21653},

doi = {https://doi.org/10.1002/tea.21653},

issn = {1098-2736},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-01-01},

urldate = {2021-05-07},

journal = {Journal of Research in Science Teaching},

volume = {58},

number = {2},

pages = {225--248},

abstract = {Integrating sophisticated graphical analysis skills as they learn science is essential for K-12 students and emphasized in current standards. In this study, we iteratively designed a Graphing Integration Inventory (GII) over a three-year period, while also supporting students to develop their capabilities to use graphs to learn science content in complex ways through interactive curriculum materials implemented on a novel technology enhanced curriculum platform. We applied the Knowledge Integration framework to design the curriculum, the assessments, and the rubrics for scoring student explanations. The framework delineates ways to promote links among graphs and science ideas. The rubrics award students higher scores on their explanations based on the level of complexity of their connections between science concepts and, in this research, graphs. The GII and the aligned curriculum were implemented by over 300 middle school students (Grades 6\textendash8) across a 3-year period. We investigated the impact of the designed curriculum on the integration of graphing and science while also studying the psychometric properties of the GII to validate it for use in future studies. Findings suggest both that the curriculum used to support these students improved their Knowledge Integration capabilities significantly and that the GII instrument is suitable for use with populations across gender and native English language status demographics in Grades 6\textendash8. Implications are discussed around using graphs to learn complex science ideas, as well as the affordances of technology enhanced platforms to support this type of learning and assessment.},

note = {_eprint: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/tea.21653},

keywords = {GRIDS},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{linn_for_2021,

title = {For The Future of Education - Technology Matters},

author = {Marcia C Linn and Elizabeth McBride and Libby Gerard and Ady Kidron},

url = {http://ibe-infocus.org/articles/for-the-future-of-education/},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-01-01},

urldate = {2021-05-07},

journal = {In Focus \textemdash Magazine of the UNESCO International Bureau of Education},

abstract = {Self-directed learning often demands that the learner interpret conflicting information, seek clarification, and make informed decisions about personal dilemmas. How can technology help students develop the knowledge and skills to self-direct their learning throughout life?},

keywords = {GRIDS, PLANS},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{kucirkova_designing_2021,

title = {Designing personalised instruction: A research and design framework},

author = {Natalia Kucirkova and Libby Gerard and Marcia C Linn},

url = {https://bera-journals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/bjet.13119},

doi = {https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.13119},

issn = {1467-8535},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-01-01},

urldate = {2021-05-24},

journal = {British Journal of Educational Technology},

abstract = {Advances in technology have increased the opportunities for designers to personalise instruction based on student actions. We conducted semi-structured interviews with an international sample of educational professionals including researchers, teachers and designers, and reviewed interdisciplinary literature on personalisation to propose a framework for personalisation research and design. Thematic analysis of the interviews revealed that professionals value each type of personalisation opportunity (eg, customising for age-appropriate content, supports for student choice, automated guidance based on learner responses) and identify challenges (eg, trade-offs between adaptive and standardised instruction). Three research/design dilemmas emerged: individualisation and equity; group customisation and individual benefit; and adaptation and validity of measurement. We discuss these dilemmas in relation to three categories of personalisation: customisation by designers or teachers to support a specific audience (grade level, course, community); individualisation to support user choice (of book to read, project topic); and adaptation of instructional activities based on automated analysis of logged user performance (performance metrics, natural language processing, cumulative indicators). We suggest some guiding questions for a generative agenda for future research on personalised instruction. Practitioner notes What is already known about this topic Personalised learning is popular among educational professionals. Personalised design has multiple and inconsistent definitions. A shared framework for personalised instruction would facilitate research and design. What this paper adds A succinct but comprehensive definition of personalised education. Perspectives on personalisation from an international group of practitioners and designers. A framework including three dilemmas to guide future research on the design and practice of personalised instruction. Implications for practice and/or policy A shared definition of personalisation can support communication across diverse stakeholders. The framework can guide future design and instruction with personalised educational technology. The framework identifies dilemmas that illustrate ethical pathways for policy-makers responsible for personalised education.},

note = {_eprint: https://bera-journals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/bjet.13119},

keywords = {STRIDES},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{bichler_designing_2021,

title = {Designing a Remote Professional Development Course to Support Teacher Customization in Science},

author = {Sarah Bichler and Libby Gerard and Allison Bradford and Marcia C Linn},

url = {https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0747563221001370},

doi = {10.1016/j.chb.2021.106814},

issn = {0747-5632},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-01-01},

urldate = {2021-05-24},

journal = {Computers in Human Behavior},

keywords = {ARISE, POWER, STRIDES},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{pea_personal_2020,

title = {Personal Perspectives on the Emergence of the Learning Sciences: 1970s\textendash2005},

author = {Roy Pea and Marcia C Linn},

url = {https://www.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/feduc.2020.00130},

doi = {10.3389/feduc.2020.00130},

issn = {2504-284X},

year  = {2020},

date = {2020-01-01},

urldate = {2021-08-13},

journal = {Frontiers in Education},

volume = {5},

pages = {130},

abstract = {We describe the emergence of the interdisciplinary learning sciences field and its consequential transformations, drawing on experiences that brought us together. Starting with our undergraduate years, the account culminates with the formation of the International Society of the Learning Sciences (ISLS). We identify six themes shaping the emergence of the learning sciences and our own trajectories: (a) broadening the community and incorporating new disciplinary perspectives; (b) appropriating and developing new methods; (c) reconceptualizing challenges; (d) creating artifacts; (e) developing abstractions; and (f) developing people. We intend this personal account to stimulate new initiatives and deepening insights as the journey of the learning sciences continues.},

keywords = {CLASS, GRIDS, PLANS, POWER, STRIDES},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{vitale_coordinating_2019,

title = {Coordinating between Graphs and Science Concepts: Density and Buoyancy},

author = {Jonathan M Vitale and Lauren Applebaum and Marcia C Linn},

url = {https://doi.org/10.1080/07370008.2018.1539736},

doi = {10.1080/07370008.2018.1539736},

issn = {0737-0008},

year  = {2019},

date = {2019-01-01},

urldate = {2019-05-10},

journal = {Cognition and Instruction},

volume = {37},

number = {1},

pages = {38--72},

abstract = {Graphs illustrating complex scientific relationships require students to integrate multiple concepts and visual features into a coherent understanding. We investigate ways to support students in integrating their understanding of density concepts through a graph that is linked to a simulation depicting the relationship between mass, volume, and density. We randomly assigned 325 8th-grade students to 1 of 2 graphing activities. In the analyze condition, students plotted a set of data points selected to help clarify the relationship between mass, volume, and buoyancy, and then interacted with a guided simulation to improve their plotting accuracy. In the generate condition, students chose their own data points, and then interacted with a guided simulation to test and revise their choices. We found that, although analyze participants were more likely to construct accurate graphs, generate participants were more likely to develop a coherent understanding of density and buoyancy. Analyses of process data and interviews suggest that generate participants grappled with the mass-volume ratio by deliberately testing points and identifying patterns as they updated their understanding of science concepts. In contrast, analyze participants displayed less deliberate exploration of the graph space. We discuss how activities that integrate graph interpretation and concept refinement can deepen science learning.},

keywords = {GRIDS, PLANS},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{gerard_guiding_2019,

title = {Guiding collaborative revision of science explanations},

author = {Libby Gerard and Ady Kidron and Marcia C Linn},

url = {https://doi.org/10.1007/s11412-019-09298-y},

doi = {10.1007/s11412-019-09298-y},

issn = {1556-1615},

year  = {2019},

date = {2019-01-01},

urldate = {2019-12-06},

journal = {International Journal of Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning},

abstract = {This paper illustrates how the combination of teacher and computer guidance can strengthen collaborative revision and identifies opportunities for teacher guidance in a computer-supported collaborative learning environment. We took advantage of natural language processing tools embedded in an online, collaborative environment to automatically score student responses using human-designed knowledge integration rubrics. We used the automated explanation scores to assign adaptive guidance to the students and to provide real-time information to the teacher on students’ learning. We study how one teacher customizes the automated guidance tools and incorporates it with her in-class monitoring system to guide 98 student pairs in meaningful revision of two science explanations embedded in an online plate tectonics unit. Our study draws on video and audio recordings of teacher-student interactions during instruction as well as on student responses to pretest, embedded and posttest assessments. The findings reveal five distinct strategies the teacher used to guide student pairs in collaborative revision. The teacher’s strategies draw on the automated guidance to personalize guidance of student ideas. The teacher’s guidance system supported all pairs to engage in two rounds of revision for the two explanations in the unit. Students made more substantial revisions on posttest than on pretest yet the percentage of students who engaged in revision overall remained small. Results can inform the design of teacher professional development for guiding student pairs in collaborative revision in a computer-supported environment.},

keywords = {PLANS, STRIDES},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{matuk_qualitative_2019,

title = {Qualitative graphing in an authentic inquiry context: How construction and critique help middle school students to reason about cancer},

author = {Camillia Matuk and Jiayuan Zhang and Irina Uk and Marcia C Linn},

url = {https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/tea.21533},

doi = {10.1002/tea.21533},

issn = {1098-2736},

year  = {2019},

date = {2019-01-01},

urldate = {2019-09-23},

journal = {Journal of Research in Science Teaching},

volume = {56},

number = {7},

pages = {905--936},

abstract = {Inquiry instruction often neglects graphing. It gives students few opportunities to develop the knowledge and skills necessary to take advantage of graphs, and which are called for by current science education standards. Yet, it is not well known how to support graphing skills, particularly within middle school science inquiry contexts. Using qualitative graphs is a promising, but underexplored approach. In contrast to quantitative graphs, which can lead students to focus too narrowly on the mechanics of plotting points, qualitative graphs can encourage students to relate graphical representations to their conceptual meaning. Guided by the Knowledge Integration framework, which recognizes and guides students in integrating their diverse ideas about science, we incorporated qualitative graphing activities into a seventh grade web-based inquiry unit about cell division and cancer treatment. In Study 1, we characterized the kinds of graphs students generated in terms of their integration of graphical and scientific knowledge. We also found that students (n = 30) using the unit made significant learning gains based on their pretest to post-test scores. In Study 2, we compared students' performance in two versions of the same unit: One that had students construct, and second that had them critique qualitative graphs. Results showed that both activities had distinct benefits, and improved students' (n = 117) integrated understanding of graphs and science. Specifically, critiquing graphs helped students improve their scientific explanations within the unit, while constructing graphs led students to link key science ideas within both their in-unit and post-unit explanations. We discuss the relative affordances and constraints of critique and construction activities, and observe students' common misunderstandings of graphs. In all, this study offers a critical exploration of how to design instruction that simultaneously supports students' science and graph understanding within complex inquiry contexts.},

keywords = {PLANS},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{mcbride_middle_2018,

title = {Middle School Student Ideas on the Relative Affordances of Physical and Virtual Models},

author = {Elizabeth McBride and Jonathan Vitale and Marcia Linn},

url = {https://repository.isls.org//handle/1/641},

year  = {2018},

date = {2018-07-01},

urldate = {2019-05-10},

keywords = {PLANS},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{mcbride_learning_2018,

title = {Learning Design Through Science vs. Science Through Design},

author = {Elizabeth McBride and Jonathan Vitale and Marcia Linn},

url = {https://repository.isls.org//handle/1/474},

year  = {2018},

date = {2018-07-01},

urldate = {2019-05-10},

keywords = {PLANS},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{harrison_encouraging_2018,

title = {Encouraging Revision of Scientific Ideas with Critique in an Online Genetics Unit},

author = {Emily Jean Harrison and Libby Gerard and Marcia Linn},

url = {https://repository.isls.org//handle/1/502},

year  = {2018},

date = {2018-01-01},

urldate = {2019-05-10},

keywords = {PLANS},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{matuk_why_2018,

title = {Why and how do middle school students exchange ideas during science inquiry?},

author = {Camillia Matuk and Marcia C Linn},

url = {https://doi.org/10.1007/s11412-018-9282-1},

doi = {10.1007/s11412-018-9282-1},

issn = {1556-1615},

year  = {2018},

date = {2018-01-01},

urldate = {2019-05-10},

journal = {International Journal of Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning},

volume = {13},

number = {3},

pages = {263--299},

abstract = {Science is increasingly characterized by participation in knowledge communities. To meaningfully engage in science inquiry, students must be able to evaluate diverse sources of information, articulate informed ideas, and share ideas with peers. This study explores how technology can support idea exchanges in ways that value individuals’ prior ideas, and allow students to use these ideas to benefit their own and their peers’ learning. We used the Idea Manager, a curriculum-integrated tool that enables students to collect and exchange ideas during science inquiry projects. We investigated how students exchanged ideas, how these exchanges impacted the explanations they ultimately produced, and how the tool impacted teachers’ instruction. We implemented the tool with 297 grade 7 students, who were studying a web-based unit on cancer and cell division. Among other results, we found a relationship between the diversity of students’ ideas, and the sources of those ideas (i.e., whether they came from the students themselves or from their peers), and the quality of students’ scientific explanations. Specifically, students who collected more unique ideas (i.e., ideas not already represented in their private idea collections) as opposed to redundant ideas (i.e., ideas that reiterated ideas already present in their private idea collections) tended to write poorer explanations; and students who generated their own redundant ideas, as opposed to choosing peers’ ideas that were redundant, tended to write better explanations. We discuss implications for formative assessment, and for the role of technology in supporting students to engage more meaningfully with peers’ ideas.},

keywords = {PLANS},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{svihla_distributed_2018,

title = {Distributed practice in classroom inquiry science learning},

author = {Vanessa Svihla and Michael J Wester and Marcia C Linn},

url = {https://doi.org/10.1080/23735082.2017.1371321},

doi = {10.1080/23735082.2017.1371321},

issn = {2373-5082},

year  = {2018},

date = {2018-01-01},

urldate = {2019-05-09},

journal = {Learning: Research and Practice},

volume = {4},

number = {2},

pages = {180--202},

abstract = {This study is inspired by laboratory studies demonstrating that distributing study sessions over time better supports learning and retention than clustering sessions. We compare two implementations of a multi-day inquiry science unit: in the clustered instruction condition, students completed an inquiry unit in five consecutive class periods. In the distributed instruction condition, students completed one activity per week for five weeks. Both conditions resulted in significant and similar gains in understanding and retention overall. Students’ self-directed revisits to previously studied materials differed by condition, with students in the clustered condition tending to visit materials studied on previous days. These distal revisits explained variance in delayed post-test scores as an interaction effect with condition. Students in the clustered condition who revisited distal materials tended to score higher on the delayed post-test, whereas those in the distributed condition who did so tended to score lower. Our findings illustrate the complexity of realising laboratory findings in classrooms under real-world conditions.},

keywords = {CLASS, GRIDS, PLANS},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{zertuche_how_2017,

title = {How do openers contribute to student learning?},

author = {Amber Zertuche and Libby Gerard and Marcia C Linn},

url = {https://www.iejee.com/index.php/IEJEE/article/view/11},

issn = {1307-9298},

year  = {2017},

date = {2017-07-01},

urldate = {2017-11-18},

journal = {International Electronic Journal of Elementary Education},

volume = {5},

number = {1},

pages = {79--92},

abstract = {Openers, or brief activities that initiate a class, routinely take up classroom time each day yet little isknown about how to design these activities so they contribute to student learning. This study usestechnology-enhanced learning environments to explore new opportunities to transform Openersfrom potentially busy work to knowledge generating activities. This study compares the impact ofteacher-designed Openers, Opener designs based on recent research emphasizing knowledgeintegration, and no Opener for an 8th grade technology-enhanced inquiry science investigation.Results suggest that students who participate in a researcher-designed Opener are more likely torevisit and refine their work, and to make significant learning gains, than students who do notparticipate in an Opener. Students make the greatest gains when they revisit key evidence in thetechnology-enhanced curriculum unit prior to revision. Engaging students in processes that promoteknowledge integration during the Opener motivate students to revise their ideas. The results suggestdesign principles for Openers in technology-enhanced instruction.},

keywords = {VISUAL},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{applebaum_comparing_2017,

title = {Comparing Design Constraints to Support Learning in Technology-guided Inquiry Projects},

author = {Lauren R Applebaum and Jonathan M Vitale and Elizabeth Gerard and Marcia C Linn},

url = {https://www.jstor.org/stable/26229216},

issn = {1176-3647},

year  = {2017},

date = {2017-01-01},

urldate = {2019-05-10},

journal = {Journal of Educational Technology & Society},

volume = {20},

number = {4},

pages = {179--190},

abstract = {[ABSTRACT Physical design projects are a way to motivate and engage students in authentic science and engineering practices. Web-based tools can support design projects to ensure that students address and reflect upon critical science concepts during the course of the project. In addition, by specifying challenging design goals that require students to consider potential trade-offs between features, web-based tools may promote more deliberative scientific inquiry than open-ended or feature maximization goals. To study the role of web-supported projects, we developed an online curriculum that guides students through the planning, building, and analysis of self-propelled vehicles. To address content related to energy transformation we incorporated virtual models that display dynamic graphs of energy levels as a virtual scooter travels along a path. We compared two design goals for the project with different constraints. In the target version students are prompted to build virtual and physical scooters to reach a specific position. In the distance version students are prompted to maximize the distance the scooter travels. Our results indicate that students learned energy concepts from both versions; however, students with the target version did refer to the virtual model in their posttest responses to a greater degree than those with the distance version.]},

keywords = {CLASS, PLANS},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{tansomboon_designing_2017,

title = {Designing Automated Guidance to Promote Productive Revision of Science Explanations},

author = {Charissa Tansomboon and Libby F Gerard and Jonathan M Vitale and Marcia C Linn},

url = {https://doi.org/10.1007/s40593-017-0145-0},

doi = {10.1007/s40593-017-0145-0},

issn = {1560-4306},

year  = {2017},

date = {2017-01-01},

urldate = {2019-05-10},

journal = {International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education},

volume = {27},

number = {4},

pages = {729--757},

abstract = {Supporting students to revise their written explanations in science can help students to integrate disparate ideas and develop a coherent, generative account of complex scientific topics. Using natural language processing to analyze student written work, we compare forms of automated guidance designed to motivate productive revision and help students integrate their understanding of science. Research shows the benefit of providing timely, transparent guidance to students and identifies some challenges. Specifically, (a) students often believe online guidance is generic rather than adapted to their response; and (b) students do not always engage effortfully with online guidance to improve their written responses. We conducted two studies to address these challenges. In Study 1, we created transparent guidance that clarified how the computer personalizes guidance based on the student response. We hypothesized that transparent guidance would be especially valuable for low prior knowledge students who might expect the computer guidance to be too difficult. We found that transparent guidance had a greater impact than typical guidance on low prior knowledge student revisions, suggesting that student beliefs about how guidance is designed influence their performance. In Study 2, implemented in six schools, we compared two specific guidance strategies: revisiting evidence and planning writing changes. We found that both revisiting and planning guidance resulted in significant improvement in student knowledge integration, although neither guidance strategy showed a significant advantage over the other. In addition, we found that the form of guidance interacted with school, suggesting that teacher practices could reinforce a specific guidance strategy. These results illustrate ways to design guidance to strengthen student understanding of science. They raise important questions about when to encourage revisiting, how to design instruction focused on planning, and how to instill a lifelong practice of engaging in iterative refinement of scientific explanations.},

keywords = {CLASS, GRIDS, PLANS},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{chiu_supporting_2017,

title = {Supporting informed engineering design across formal and informal contexts with WIS engineering},

author = {J Chiu and Amanda Gonczi and X Fu and M D Burghardt},

year  = {2017},

date = {2017-01-01},

volume = {33},

pages = {371--381},

abstract = {This paper describes the design of WISEngineering, a computer-based engineering design environment focused on helping learners in formal and informal settings engage in informed engineering design activities. This paper compares and contrasts results of implementing WISEngineering projects in both formal and informal learning settings. In particular, this paper reports on insights gleaned from implementing WISEngineering middle school science and math classrooms as well as in after-school settings with Boys and Girls Clubs. We discuss design principles guiding the development of WISEngineering for school settings and how these principles were adapted and refined for youth and facilitators in informal learning contexts. We provide implications for the design of technology-enhanced engineering learning environments across school and out-of-school time settings.},

keywords = {PLANS},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{donnelly_enhancing_2016,

title = {Enhancing student explanations of evolution: Comparing elaborating and competing theory prompts: ENHANCING EXPLANATIONS OF EVOLUTION},

author = {Dermot F Donnelly and Bahadir Namdar and Jonathan M Vitale and Kevin Lai and Marcia C Linn},

url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/tea.21331},

doi = {10.1002/tea.21331},

issn = {00224308},

year  = {2016},

date = {2016-11-01},

urldate = {2017-11-16},

journal = {Journal of Research in Science Teaching},

volume = {53},

number = {9},

pages = {1341--1363},

keywords = {GRIDS, PLANS},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{ryoo_designing_2016,

title = {Designing automated guidance for concept diagrams in inquiry instruction: Designing Automated Guidance For Inquiry Learning},

author = {Kihyun Ryoo and Marcia C Linn},

url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/tea.21321},

doi = {10.1002/tea.21321},

issn = {00224308},

year  = {2016},

date = {2016-09-01},

urldate = {2017-11-16},

journal = {Journal of Research in Science Teaching},

volume = {53},

number = {7},

pages = {1003--1035},

keywords = {CLASS, GRIDS, PLANS},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{lai_measuring_2016,

title = {Measuring Graph Comprehension, Critique, and Construction in Science},

author = {Kevin Lai and Julio Cabrera and Jonathan M Vitale and Jacquie Madhok and Robert Tinker and Marcia C Linn},

url = {http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10956-016-9621-9},

doi = {10.1007/s10956-016-9621-9},

issn = {1059-0145, 1573-1839},

year  = {2016},

date = {2016-08-01},

urldate = {2017-11-16},

journal = {Journal of Science Education and Technology},

volume = {25},

number = {4},

pages = {665--681},

keywords = {CLASS, GRIDS, PLANS},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{petra_supporting_2016,

title = {Supporting students to become autonomous learners: the role of web-based learning},

author = {Siti Fatimah Petra and Jainatul Halida Jaidin and JSH Quintus Perera and Marcia Linn},

url = {http://www.emeraldinsight.com/doi/10.1108/IJILT-05-2016-0017},

doi = {10.1108/IJILT-05-2016-0017},

issn = {2056-4880},

year  = {2016},

date = {2016-08-01},

urldate = {2017-11-16},

journal = {International Journal of Information and Learning Technology},

volume = {33},

number = {4},

pages = {263--275},

keywords = {CLASS, GRIDS, PLANS},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{matuk_iteratively_2016,

title = {Iteratively Refining a Science Explanation Tool Through Classroom Implementation and Stakeholder Partnerships},

author = {Camillia Matuk and Kevin W McElhaney and Jennifer King Chen and Jonathan Lim-Breitbart and Douglas Kirkpatrick and Marcia C Linn},

url = {https://scholarworks.iu.edu/journals/index.php/ijdl/article/view/20203},

doi = {10.14434/ijdl.v7i2.20203},

issn = {2159-449X},

year  = {2016},

date = {2016-06-01},

urldate = {2017-11-16},

journal = {International Journal of Designs for Learning},

volume = {7},

number = {2},

abstract = {Science inquiry challenges students to synthesize various ideas about complex phenomena into coherent explanations. It also challenges teachers, who must guide their diverse students’ developing understanding during student-paced investigations. We describe the Idea Manager, a suite of web-based, curriculum-integrated tools that (a) guides students’ knowledge integration as they generate, distinguish, and reconcile their ideas; and (b) provides means for teachers to monitor learning over the course of technology-enhanced science inquiry units. With the Idea Manager tool, students document short, text-based ideas, tag and sort them along various attributes, and exchange them with classmates. At culminating points of their investigations, students graphically organize their ideas to prepare written scientific explanations. Meanwhile, logs of idea entries, revisions, and meta-data inform teachers’ and researchers’ decisions about instruction and design.This paper offers an account of the design moves made in refining the Idea Manager, and highlights the importance of teacher-researcher partnerships and classroom implementations. Through designers’ artifacts, classroom research findings, and teachers’ and researchers’ reflections, we illustrate the tool’s origins; our strategies for testing new features and eliciting stakeholders’ feedback, and how middle and high school classroom implementations inform the tool’s continued iterations. Based on learning theory and on our own 40+ collective years of classroom teaching experience, we explain our design decisions and describe how new features and patterns for the tool’s use emerged from a community of researchers. Finally, we reflect on the process of iteration that advances both theory and design, and on the value of pedagogically-driven technology design.},

keywords = {CLASS, GRIDS, PLANS},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{vitale_distinguishing_2016,

title = {Distinguishing complex ideas about climate change: knowledge integration vs. specific guidance},

author = {Jonathan M Vitale and Elizabeth McBride and Marcia C Linn},

url = {http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09500693.2016.1198969},

doi = {10.1080/09500693.2016.1198969},

issn = {0950-0693, 1464-5289},

year  = {2016},

date = {2016-06-01},

urldate = {2017-11-16},

journal = {International Journal of Science Education},

volume = {38},

number = {9},

pages = {1548--1569},

keywords = {CLASS, GRIDS, PLANS},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{linn_science_2016,

title = {Science Education: From Separation to Integration},

author = {Marcia C Linn and Libby Gerard and Camillia Matuk and Kevin W McElhaney},

url = {http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.3102/0091732X16680788},

doi = {10.3102/0091732X16680788},

issn = {0091-732X},

year  = {2016},

date = {2016-03-01},

urldate = {2017-11-16},

journal = {Review of Research in Education},

volume = {40},

number = {1},

pages = {529--587},

abstract = {Advances in technology, science, and learning sciences research over the past 100 years have reshaped science education. This chapter focuses on how investigators from varied fields of inquiry who initially worked separately began to interact, eventually formed partnerships, and recently integrated their perspectives to strengthen science education. Advances depended on the broadening of the participants in science education research, starting with psychologists, science discipline experts, and science educators; adding science teachers, psychometricians, computer scientists, and sociologists; and eventually including leaders in cultural studies, linguistics, and neuroscience. This process depended on renegotiating power structures, deliberate funding decisions by the National Science Foundation and others, and sustained, creative teamwork. It reflects a growing commitment to ensure that all learners are respected and that all students learn to address the complex scientific dilemmas they face in their lives. This chapter traces the evolution of research on science education in the United States with a focus on 5- to 17-year-olds. It highlights trends in the view of the learner, the design of instruction, the role of professional development, and the impact of technology. The chapter closes with recommendations designed to realize the full potential of these advances.},

keywords = {CLASS, GRIDS, PLANS},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{gerard_using_2016,

title = {Using Automated Scores of Student Essays to Support Teacher Guidance in Classroom Inquiry},

author = {Libby F Gerard and Marcia C Linn},

url = {https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10972-016-9455-6},

doi = {10.1007/s10972-016-9455-6},

issn = {1046-560X, 1573-1847},

year  = {2016},

date = {2016-02-01},

urldate = {2017-11-17},

journal = {Journal of Science Teacher Education},

volume = {27},

number = {1},

pages = {111--129},

abstract = {Computer scoring of student written essays about an inquiry topic can be used to diagnose student progress both to alert teachers to struggling students and to generate automated guidance. We identify promising ways for teachers to add value to automated guidance to improve student learning. Three teachers from two schools and their 386 students participated. We draw on evidence from student progress, observations of how teachers interact with students, and reactions of teachers. The findings suggest that alerts for teachers prompted rich teacher\textendashstudent conversations about energy in photosynthesis. In one school, the combination of the automated guidance plus teacher guidance was more effective for student science learning than two rounds of personalized, automated guidance. In the other school, both approaches resulted in equal learning gains. These findings suggest optimal combinations of automated guidance and teacher guidance to support students to revise explanations during inquiry and build integrated understanding of science.},

keywords = {CLASS, GRIDS, PLANS},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{liu_validation_2016,

title = {Validation of automated scoring of science assessments},

author = {Ou Lydia Liu and Joseph A Rios and Michael Heilman and Libby Gerard and Marcia C Linn},

url = {http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/tea.21299/abstract},

doi = {10.1002/tea.21299},

issn = {1098-2736},

year  = {2016},

date = {2016-02-01},

urldate = {2017-11-17},

journal = {Journal of Research in Science Teaching},

volume = {53},

number = {2},

pages = {215--233},

abstract = {Constructed response items can both measure the coherence of student ideas and serve as reflective experiences to strengthen instruction. We report on new automated scoring technologies that can reduce the cost and complexity of scoring constructed-response items. This study explored the accuracy of c-rater-ML, an automated scoring engine developed by Educational Testing Service, for scoring eight science inquiry items that require students to use evidence to explain complex phenomena. Automated scoring showed satisfactory agreement with human scoring for all test takers as well as specific subgroups. These findings suggest that c-rater-ML offers a promising solution to scoring constructed-response science items and has the potential to increase the use of these items in both instruction and assessment. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Res Sci Teach 53: 215\textendash233, 2016.},

keywords = {CLASS, GRIDS, PLANS},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{gerard_technology_2016,

title = {Technology as Inquiry Teaching Partner},

author = {Libby Gerard and Camillia Matuk and Marcia C Linn},

url = {https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10972-016-9457-4},

doi = {10.1007/s10972-016-9457-4},

issn = {1046-560X, 1573-1847},

year  = {2016},

date = {2016-01-01},

urldate = {2017-11-16},

journal = {Journal of Science Teacher Education},

volume = {27},

number = {1},

pages = {1--9},

abstract = {No Abstract available for this article.},

keywords = {CLASS, GRIDS, PLANS},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{gonczi_wisengineering_2016,

title = {WISEngineering Hydroponics: A Technology-Enhanced, Life Science Engineering Design Unit},

author = {Amanda Gonczi and Jennifer Chiu},

doi = {10.2505/4/ss16_039_09_19},

year  = {2016},

date = {2016-01-01},

journal = {Science Scope},

volume = {39},

keywords = {CLASS, GRIDS},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{gerard_automated_2016,

title = {Automated guidance for student inquiry.},

author = {Libby F Gerard and Kihyun Ryoo and Kevin W McElhaney and Ou Lydia Liu and Anna N Rafferty and Marcia C Linn},

url = {http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/edu0000052},

doi = {10.1037/edu0000052},

issn = {1939-2176, 0022-0663},

year  = {2016},

date = {2016-01-01},

urldate = {2017-11-16},

journal = {Journal of Educational Psychology},

volume = {108},

number = {1},

pages = {60--81},

keywords = {CLASS, GRIDS, PLANS},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{schwendimann_comparing_2016,

title = {Comparing two forms of concept map critique activities to facilitate knowledge integration processes in evolution education},

author = {Beat A Schwendimann and Marcia C Linn},

url = {https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/tea.21244},

doi = {10.1002/tea.21244},

issn = {1098-2736},

year  = {2016},

date = {2016-01-01},

urldate = {2019-05-10},

journal = {Journal of Research in Science Teaching},

volume = {53},

number = {1},

pages = {70--94},

abstract = {Concept map activities often lack a subsequent revision step that facilitates knowledge integration. This study compares two collaborative critique activities using a Knowledge Integration Map (KIM), a form of concept map. Four classes of high school biology students (n = 81) using an online inquiry-based learning unit on evolution were assigned to one of two conditions. Student dyads in one condition compared their concept maps against an expert map while dyads in the other condition conducted a peer-review. Analysis of the concept maps suggests that students in both conditions improved their understanding of evolution from pretest to posttest. However, the two conditions lead to different criteria: Students in the expert-map condition focused mostly on concept-focused criteria like concept classification while students in the peer-review condition used more link-focused criteria like link labels and missing connections. This paper suggests that both forms of KIM critique activities can be beneficial for constructing more coherent connections across different topics in evolution education. These results support the value of collaborative KIM critique activities and help clarify the forms of collaborative activities that are most likely to be effective to facilitate knowledge integration processes. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Res Sci Teach 53: 70\textendash94, 2016.},

keywords = {CLASS, GRIDS, VISUAL},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{matuk_gathering_2016,

title = {Gathering Requirements for Teacher Tools: Strategies for Empowering Teachers Through Co-Design},

author = {Camillia Matuk and Libby Gerard and Jonathan Lim-Breitbart and Marcia Linn},

url = {https://doi.org/10.1007/s10972-016-9459-2},

doi = {10.1007/s10972-016-9459-2},

issn = {1573-1847},

year  = {2016},

date = {2016-01-01},

urldate = {2019-09-23},

journal = {Journal of Science Teacher Education},

volume = {27},

number = {1},

pages = {79--110},

abstract = {Technology can enhance teachers’ practice in multiple ways. It can help them better understand patterns in their students’ thinking, manage class progress at individual and group levels, and obtain evidence to inform modifications to curriculum and instruction. Such technology is most effective when it is aligned with teachers’ goals and expectations. Participatory methods, which involve teachers closely in the design process, are widely recommended for establishing accurate design requirements that address users’ needs. By collaborating with researchers, teachers can contribute their professional expertise to shape the tools of their practice, and ultimately ensure their sustained use. However, there is little guidance available for maintaining effective teacher\textendashresearcher design partnerships. We describe four strategies for engaging teachers in designing tools intended to support and enhance their practice within a web-based science learning environment: discussing physical artifacts, reacting to scenarios, customizing prototypes, and writing user stories. Using design artifacts and documents of teachers’ reflections, we illustrate how we applied these techniques over 5 years of annual professional development workshops, and examine their affordances for eliciting teachers’ ideas. We reflect on how these approaches have helped inform technology refinements and innovations. We moreover discuss the further benefits these strategies have had in encouraging teachers to reflect on their own practice and on the roles of technology in supporting it; and in allowing researchers to gain a deeper understanding of the relationship between technology, teaching, and design.},

keywords = {CLASS, GRIDS, PLANS},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{svihla_revisiting_2015,

title = {Revisiting for retention: An analytic for inquiry science learning.},

author = {Vanessa Svihla and Michael J Wester and Marcia C Linn},

url = {http://epress.lib.uts.edu.au/journals/index.php/JLA/article/view/4267},

doi = {10.18608/jla.2015.22.7},

issn = {19297750},

year  = {2015},

date = {2015-12-01},

urldate = {2017-11-16},

journal = {Journal of Learning Analytics},

volume = {2},

number = {2},

pages = {75--101},

keywords = {CLASS, GRIDS, PLANS},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{vitale_taking_2015,

title = {Taking advantage of automated assessment of student-constructed graphs in science: AUTO ASSESSMENT OF STUDENT GRAPHS},

author = {Jonathan M Vitale and Kevin Lai and Marcia C Linn},

url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/tea.21241},

doi = {10.1002/tea.21241},

issn = {00224308},

year  = {2015},

date = {2015-12-01},

urldate = {2017-11-18},

journal = {Journal of Research in Science Teaching},

volume = {52},

number = {10},

pages = {1426--1450},

keywords = {CLASS, GRIDS, VISUAL},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{donnelly_automated_2015,

title = {Automated Guidance for Thermodynamics Essays: Critiquing Versus Revisiting},

author = {Dermot F Donnelly and Jonathan M Vitale and Marcia C Linn},

url = {http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10956-015-9569-1},

doi = {10.1007/s10956-015-9569-1},

issn = {1059-0145, 1573-1839},

year  = {2015},

date = {2015-12-01},

urldate = {2017-11-18},

journal = {Journal of Science Education and Technology},

volume = {24},

number = {6},

pages = {861--874},

keywords = {CLASS, GRIDS, VISUAL},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{ryoo_designing_2015,

title = {Designing and Validating Assessments of Complex Thinking in Science},

author = {Kihyun Ryoo and Marcia C Linn},

url = {http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00405841.2015.1044374},

doi = {10.1080/00405841.2015.1044374},

issn = {0040-5841, 1543-0421},

year  = {2015},

date = {2015-07-01},

urldate = {2017-11-18},

journal = {Theory Into Practice},

volume = {54},

number = {3},

pages = {238--254},

keywords = {CLASS, GRIDS, VISUAL},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{gerard_automated_2015,

title = {Automated, adaptive guidance for K-12 education},

author = {Libby Gerard and Camillia Matuk and Kevin McElhaney and Marcia C Linn},

url = {http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1747938X15000238},

doi = {10.1016/j.edurev.2015.04.001},

issn = {1747938X},

year  = {2015},

date = {2015-06-01},

urldate = {2017-11-18},

journal = {Educational Research Review},

volume = {15},

pages = {41--58},

keywords = {CLASS, GRIDS, VISUAL},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{liu_measuring_2015,

title = {Measuring Knowledge Integration Learning of Energy Topics: A two-year longitudinal study},

author = {Ou Lydia Liu and Kihyun Ryoo and Marcia C Linn and Elissa Sato and Vanessa Svihla},

url = {http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09500693.2015.1016470},

doi = {10.1080/09500693.2015.1016470},

issn = {0950-0693, 1464-5289},

year  = {2015},

date = {2015-05-01},

urldate = {2017-11-16},

journal = {International Journal of Science Education},

volume = {37},

number = {7},

pages = {1044--1066},

keywords = {CLASS, GRIDS, VISUAL},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{visintainer_sixth-grade_2015,

title = {Sixth-Grade Students’ Progress in Understanding the Mechanisms of Global Climate Change},

author = {Tammie Visintainer and Marcia Linn},

url = {http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10956-014-9538-0},

doi = {10.1007/s10956-014-9538-0},

issn = {1059-0145, 1573-1839},

year  = {2015},

date = {2015-04-01},

urldate = {2017-11-18},

journal = {Journal of Science Education and Technology},

volume = {24},

number = {2-3},

pages = {287--310},

keywords = {CLASS, GRIDS, VISUAL},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{matuk_technology_2015,

title = {Technology to support teachers using evidence from student work to customize technology-enhanced inquiry units},

author = {Camillia F Matuk and Marcia C Linn and Bat-Sheva Eylon},

url = {http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s11251-014-9338-1},

doi = {10.1007/s11251-014-9338-1},

issn = {0020-4277, 1573-1952},

year  = {2015},

date = {2015-03-01},

urldate = {2017-11-18},

journal = {Instructional Science},

volume = {43},

number = {2},

pages = {229--257},

keywords = {CLASS, GRIDS, VISUAL},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{linn_undergraduate_2015,

title = {Undergraduate research experiences: Impacts and opportunities},

author = {M C Linn and E Palmer and A Baranger and E Gerard and E Stone},

url = {http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/doi/10.1126/science.1261757},

doi = {10.1126/science.1261757},

issn = {0036-8075, 1095-9203},

year  = {2015},

date = {2015-02-01},

urldate = {2017-11-18},

journal = {Science},

volume = {347},

number = {6222},

pages = {1261757--1261757},

keywords = {CLASS, GRIDS, VISUAL},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{mcelhaney_evidence_2015,

title = {Evidence for effective uses of dynamic visualisations in science curriculum materials},

author = {Kevin W McElhaney and Hsin-Yi Chang and Jennifer L Chiu and Marcia C Linn},

url = {http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/03057267.2014.984506},

doi = {10.1080/03057267.2014.984506},

issn = {0305-7267, 1940-8412},

year  = {2015},

date = {2015-01-01},

urldate = {2017-11-18},

journal = {Studies in Science Education},

volume = {51},

number = {1},

pages = {49--85},

keywords = {CLASS, GRIDS, VISUAL},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{miller_womens_2015,

title = {Women’s representation in science predicts national gender-science stereotypes: Evidence from 66 nations.},

author = {David I Miller and Alice H Eagly and Marcia C Linn},

url = {http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/edu0000005},

doi = {10.1037/edu0000005},

issn = {1939-2176, 0022-0663},

year  = {2015},

date = {2015-01-01},

urldate = {2017-11-18},

journal = {Journal of Educational Psychology},

volume = {107},

number = {3},

pages = {631--644},

keywords = {CLASS, VISUAL},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{linn_designing_2015,

title = {Designing Instruction to Improve Lifelong Inquiry Learning},

author = {Marcia C Linn and Bat-Sheva Eylon and Anna Rafferty and Jonathan M Vitale},

url = {http://www.ejmste.com/Designing-Instruction-to-Improve-Lifelong-Inquiry-Learning,74929,0,2.html},

doi = {10.12973/eurasia.2015.1317a},

issn = {1305-8215, 1305-8223},

year  = {2015},

date = {2015-01-01},

urldate = {2017-11-16},

journal = {Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education},

volume = {11},

number = {2},

pages = {217--225},

abstract = {Citizens need the capability to conduct their own inquiry projects so that they can make sense of claims about new energy policies, health remedies, or financial opportunities. To develop the lifelong capability to grapple with these dilemmas, we report on ways to design precollege units that...},

keywords = {CLASS, GRIDS},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{svihla_distributed_2015,

title = {Distributed Revisiting: an Analytic for Retention of Coherent Science Learning},

author = {Vanessa Svihla and Michael J Wester and Marcia C Linn},

url = {https://epress.lib.uts.edu.au/journals/index.php/JLA/article/view/4267},

doi = {10.18608/jla.2015.22.7},

issn = {1929-7750},

year  = {2015},

date = {2015-01-01},

urldate = {2019-09-23},

journal = {Journal of Learning Analytics},

volume = {2},

number = {2},

pages = {75--101},

keywords = {CLASS, GRIDS, PLANS},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{donnelly_impacts_2014,

title = {Impacts and Characteristics of Computer-Based Science Inquiry Learning Environments for Precollege Students},

author = {D F Donnelly and M C Linn and S Ludvigsen},

url = {http://rer.sagepub.com/cgi/doi/10.3102/0034654314546954},

doi = {10.3102/0034654314546954},

issn = {0034-6543, 1935-1046},

year  = {2014},

date = {2014-12-01},

urldate = {2017-11-18},

journal = {Review of Educational Research},

volume = {84},

number = {4},

pages = {572--608},

keywords = {CLASS, CLEAR, VISUAL},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{linn_computer-guided_2014,

title = {Computer-Guided Inquiry to Improve Science Learning},

author = {M C Linn and L Gerard and K Ryoo and K McElhaney and O L Liu and A N Rafferty},

url = {http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/doi/10.1126/science.1245980},

doi = {10.1126/science.1245980},

issn = {0036-8075, 1095-9203},

year  = {2014},

date = {2014-04-01},

urldate = {2017-11-16},

journal = {Science},

volume = {344},

number = {6180},

pages = {155--156},

keywords = {CLASS, CLEAR},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{chiu_supporting_2014,

title = {Supporting Knowledge Integration in Chemistry with a Visualization-Enhanced Inquiry Unit},

author = {Jennifer L Chiu and Marcia C Linn},

url = {http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10956-013-9449-5},

doi = {10.1007/s10956-013-9449-5},

issn = {1059-0145, 1573-1839},

year  = {2014},

date = {2014-02-01},

urldate = {2017-11-16},

journal = {Journal of Science Education and Technology},

volume = {23},

number = {1},

pages = {37--58},

keywords = {CLASS},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{ryoo_designing_2014,

title = {Designing guidance for interpreting dynamic visualizations: Generating versus reading explanations: GUIDANCE FOR INTERPRETING DYNAMIC VISUALIZATIONS},

author = {Kihyun Ryoo and Marcia C Linn},

url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/tea.21128},

doi = {10.1002/tea.21128},

issn = {00224308},

year  = {2014},

date = {2014-02-01},

urldate = {2017-11-18},

journal = {Journal of Research in Science Teaching},

volume = {51},

number = {2},

pages = {147--174},

keywords = {CLASS, CLEAR, VISUAL},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{liu_automated_2014,

title = {Automated Scoring of Constructed-Response Science Items: Prospects and Obstacles},

author = {Ou Lydia Liu and Chris Brew and John Blackmore and Libby Gerard and Jacquie Madhok and Marcia C Linn},

url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1111/emip.12028},

doi = {10.1111/emip.12028},

issn = {07311745},

year  = {2014},

date = {2014-01-01},

urldate = {2017-11-18},

journal = {Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice},

volume = {33},

number = {2},

pages = {19--28},

keywords = {CLASS, CLEAR, VISUAL},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{vitale_applying_2014,

title = {Applying grounded coordination challenges to concrete learning materials: A study of number line estimation.},

author = {Jonathan M Vitale and John B Black and Michael I Swart},

url = {http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/a0034098},

doi = {10.1037/a0034098},

issn = {1939-2176, 0022-0663},

year  = {2014},

date = {2014-01-01},

urldate = {2017-11-18},

journal = {Journal of Educational Psychology},

volume = {106},

number = {2},

pages = {403--418},

keywords = {CLASS, VISUAL},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{zhang_learning_2013,

title = {Learning from Chemical Visualizations: Comparing generation and selection},

author = {Zhihui Helen Zhang and Marcia C Linn},

url = {https://doi.org/10.1080/09500693.2013.792971},

doi = {10.1080/09500693.2013.792971},

issn = {0950-0693},

year  = {2013},

date = {2013-09-01},

urldate = {2019-09-24},

journal = {International Journal of Science Education},

volume = {35},

number = {13},

pages = {2174--2197},

abstract = {Dynamic visualizations can make unseen phenomena such as chemical reactions visible but students need guidance to benefit from them. This study explores the value of generating drawings versus selecting among alternatives to guide students to learn chemical reactions from a dynamic visualization of hydrogen combustion as part of an online inquiry unit. In prior research, generation has been more successful than selection in helping students distinguish among ideas to learn complex topics. However, selecting among perplexing alternatives may motivate learners to distinguish among ideas they might otherwise neglect. To test the value of selection for helping students distinguish ideas, this study contrasted complex selection (involving normative as well as non-normative ideas identified in prior research) from typical selection (involving images from the visualization). Results showed that all conditions improved student understanding and that typical selection was less effective than generation while complex selection was as successful as generation. In both generation and complex selection students revisited the visualization while learning, whereas revisiting was rare in typical selection. These results support the idea that distinguishing among common non-normative ideas is more valuable than distinguishing among images from the visualization. In addition, for students with low prior knowledge, both generation and complex selection had some advantages. Overall, the results suggest that students learning from complex visualizations could benefit from a combination of complex selection and generation.},

keywords = {VISUAL},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{chang_scaffolding_2013,

title = {Scaffolding learning from molecular visualizations: SCAFFOLDING MOLECULAR VISUALIZATIONS},

author = {Hsin-Yi Chang and Marcia C Linn},

url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/tea.21089},

doi = {10.1002/tea.21089},

issn = {00224308},

year  = {2013},

date = {2013-09-01},

urldate = {2017-11-18},

journal = {Journal of Research in Science Teaching},

volume = {50},

number = {7},

pages = {858--886},

keywords = {CLASS, CLEAR, VISUAL},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{donnelly_enhancing_2013,

title = {Enhancing the Student Experiment Experience: Visible Scientific Inquiry Through a Virtual Chemistry Laboratory},

author = {Dermot Donnelly and John O’Reilly and Oliver McGarr},

url = {https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11165-012-9322-1},

doi = {10.1007/s11165-012-9322-1},

issn = {0157-244X, 1573-1898},

year  = {2013},

date = {2013-08-01},

urldate = {2017-11-17},

journal = {Research in Science Education},

volume = {43},

number = {4},

pages = {1571--1592},

abstract = {Practical work is often noted as a core reason many students take on science in secondary schools (high schools). However, there are inherent difficulties associated with classroom practical work that militate against scientific inquiry, an approach espoused by many science educators. The use of interactive simulations to facilitate student inquiry has emerged as a complement to practical work. This study presents case studies of four science teachers using a virtual chemistry laboratory (VCL) with their students in an explicitly guided inquiry manner. Research tools included the use of the Inquiry Science Implementation Scale in a ‘talk-aloud’ manner, Reformed Teaching Observation Protocol for video observations, and teacher interviews. The findings suggest key aspects of practical work that hinder teachers in adequately supporting inquiry and highlight where a VCL can overcome many of these difficulties. The findings also indicate considerations in using the VCL in its own right.},

keywords = {CLASS},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{de_jong_physical_2013,

title = {Physical and Virtual Laboratories in Science and Engineering Education},

author = {Ton de Jong and Marcia C Linn and Zacharias C Zacharia},

url = {http://science.sciencemag.org/content/340/6130/305},

doi = {10.1126/science.1230579},

issn = {0036-8075, 1095-9203},

year  = {2013},

date = {2013-04-01},

urldate = {2017-11-18},

journal = {Science},

volume = {340},

number = {6130},

pages = {305--308},

abstract = {The world needs young people who are skillful in and enthusiastic about science and who view science as their future career field. Ensuring that we will have such young people requires initiatives that engage students in interesting and motivating science experiences. Today, students can investigate scientific phenomena using the tools, data collection techniques, models, and theories of science in physical laboratories that support interactions with the material world or in virtual laboratories that take advantage of simulations. Here, we review a selection of the literature to contrast the value of physical and virtual investigations and to offer recommendations for combining the two to strengthen science learning.},

keywords = {CLASS, CLEAR, VISUAL},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{donnelly_consuming_2013,

title = {Consuming and creating: Early-adopting science teachers' perceptions and use of a wiki to support professional development - ScienceDirect},

author = {D F Donnelly and S Boniface},

url = {http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0360131513001164},

year  = {2013},

date = {2013-01-01},

urldate = {2017-11-17},

journal = {Computers & Education},

volume = {68},

pages = {9},

keywords = {CLASS},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{varma_using_2012,

title = {Using Interactive Technology to Support Students’ Understanding of the Greenhouse Effect and Global Warming},

author = {Keisha Varma and Marcia C Linn},

url = {http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10956-011-9337-9},

doi = {10.1007/s10956-011-9337-9},

issn = {1059-0145, 1573-1839},

year  = {2012},

date = {2012-08-01},

urldate = {2017-11-18},

journal = {Journal of Science Education and Technology},

volume = {21},

number = {4},

pages = {453--464},

keywords = {CLEAR, VISUAL},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{clark_bilingual_2012,

title = {Bilingual Language Supports in Online Science Inquiry Environments},

author = {Douglas B Clark and Stephanie Touchman and Mario Martinez-Garza and Frank Ramirez-Marin and Tina Skjerping Drews},

doi = {10.1016/j.compedu.2011.11.019},

issn = {0360-1315},

year  = {2012},

date = {2012-05-01},

urldate = {2017-11-18},

journal = {Computers & Education},

volume = {58},

number = {4},

pages = {1207--1224},

abstract = {Research over the past fifteen years has investigated and developed online science inquiry environments to support students engaging in authentic scientific inquiry practices. This research has focused on developing activity structures and tools to scaffold students in engaging in different aspects of these practices, but relatively little of this research has explored linguistic supports for language minority students studying science in their non-native language. These students are simultaneously learning science and the surrounding academic language in their second language. This study investigates the potential value of providing 8th grade Spanish-speaking English language learners access to content and supports in both English and Spanish as opposed to an English-only format in an online science inquiry environment. Learning outcomes are compared between the two conditions on an immediate post-test in English, a delayed post-test in English, a delayed post-test in Spanish, and a written essay in English in the form of a letter to the governor. The outcomes suggest significant benefits for providing ELL students with access to content and supports in both English and Spanish as opposed to the English-only format. The findings of this study carry important policy implications in light of the growing English-only political movements in the United States and similar political movements in other countries. (Contains 3 tables and 9 figures.)},

keywords = {CLEAR, VISUAL},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{zertuche_how_2012,

title = {How do openers contribute to student learning? textbar International Electronic Journal of Elementary Education},

author = {Amber Zertuche and Libby Gerard and Marcia C Linn},

url = {https://www.iejee.com/index.php/IEJEE/article/view/11},

year  = {2012},

date = {2012-01-01},

urldate = {2017-11-17},

journal = {International Electronic Journal of Elementary Education},

volume = {5},

number = {1},

pages = {79--92},

keywords = {CLASS},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{tissenbaum_co-designing_2012,

title = {Co-Designing Collaborative Smart Classroom Curriculum for Secondary School Science},

author = {Mike Tissenbaum and Michelle Liu and James. D Slotta},

year  = {2012},

date = {2012-01-01},

journal = {Journal of Universal Computer Science},

volume = {18},

number = {3},

pages = {327--352},

abstract = {This paper introduces a series of iterative designs that investigate how the aggregation and visualization of student-contributed work can support collaborative problem solving in the domain of physics. We investigate how new technologies can enable students to contribute to a shared knowledge base, working across contexts: in class, at home, and in a specialized "smart classroom" environment. We explore how student data can be provided to the teacher before class, in support of planning the next day's lesson, and during class, to help the teacher orchestrate class activities and respond to student needs. Our work builds upon the research tradition of knowledge communities and inquiry learning to inform its design of materials and activities that support productive collaborative interactions for learners. We are also guided by the recent literature on scripting and orchestration to define curricular activities that bridge home and school environments, leveraging a digital platform that includes Web 2.0 features to guide structured collaborations. This paper reports on a design-based research program in which the development of the curriculum and technology platform is informed by successive cycles of design, enactment, analysis, and re-design. The paper will review our efforts through three successive design cycles, exploring the evolution of our own "smart classroom curriculum" for high school physics. For each iteration, we present our design goals, the resulting curriculum and technology, the student learning outcomes, and our evaluation that informs the next iteration. We end with a description of our current design, and discuss the goals and directions of our future efforts.},

keywords = {VISUAL},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{chen_visualizing_2012,

title = {Visualizing Earth and Explaining Seasons},

author = {Jennifer King Chen and Stephen Bannasch and Cynthia McIntyre},

url = {https://concord.org/newsletter/2012-fall/visualizing-earth-explaining-seasons/},

year  = {2012},

date = {2012-01-01},

urldate = {2017-11-18},

journal = {@Concord},

volume = {16},

pages = {12--13},

abstract = {The first person to walk on the surface of the moon, Neil Armstrong viewed our planet as a floating globe in space. He is one of only a dozen who have had the opportunity to view Earth from its orbiting satellite. Photographs from Apollo 11 (Figure 1) give a glimpse of that experience, but what's it},

keywords = {VISUAL},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{svihla_design-based_2012,

title = {A Design-based Approach to Fostering Understanding of Global Climate Change},

author = {Vanessa Svihla and Marcia C Linn},

url = {http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09500693.2011.597453},

doi = {10.1080/09500693.2011.597453},

issn = {0950-0693, 1464-5289},

year  = {2012},

date = {2012-01-01},

urldate = {2017-11-19},

journal = {International Journal of Science Education},

volume = {34},

number = {5},

pages = {651--676},

keywords = {CLEAR},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{linn_open-source_2012,

title = {Open-Source Online Science Inquiry Materials: Building a Community},

author = {M C Linn and Libby F Gerard and M E Sato},

year  = {2012},

date = {2012-01-01},

journal = {Revista Contrapontos},

volume = {12},

pages = {7},

keywords = {CLASS, CLEAR, VISUAL},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{ryoo_can_2012,

title = {Can dynamic visualizations improve middle school students' understanding of energy in photosynthesis?},

author = {Kihyun Ryoo and Marcia C Linn},

url = {http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/tea.21003/abstract},

doi = {10.1002/tea.21003},

issn = {1098-2736},

year  = {2012},

date = {2012-01-01},

urldate = {2017-11-18},

journal = {Journal of Research in Science Teaching},

volume = {49},

number = {2},

pages = {218--243},

abstract = {Dynamic visualizations have the potential to make abstract scientific phenomena more accessible and visible to students, but they can also be confusing and difficult to comprehend. This research investigates how dynamic visualizations, compared to static illustrations, can support middle school students in developing an integrated understanding of energy in photosynthesis. Two hundred 7th-grade students were randomly assigned to either a dynamic or a static condition and completed a web-based inquiry unit that encourages students to make connections among energy concepts in photosynthesis. While working on the inquiry unit, students in the dynamic condition interacted with a dynamic visualization of energy transformation, whereas students in the static condition interacted with a series of static illustrations of the same concept. The results showed that students in both conditions added new, scientific ideas about energy transformation and developed a more coherent understanding of energy in photosynthesis. However, when comparing the two conditions, we found a significant advantage of dynamic visualization over static illustrations. Students in the dynamic condition were significantly more successful in articulating the process of energy transformation in the context of chemical reactions during photosynthesis. Students in the dynamic condition also demonstrated a more integrated understanding of energy in photosynthesis by linking their ideas about energy transformation to other energy ideas and observable phenomena of photosynthesis than those students in the static condition. This study, consistent with other research, shows that dynamic visualizations can more effectively improve students' understanding of abstract concepts of molecular processes than static illustrations. The results of this study also suggest that with appropriate instructional support, such as making predictions and distinguishing among ideas, both dynamic visualizations and static illustrations can benefit students. This study underscores the importance of curriculum design in ensuring that dynamic visualizations add value to science instructional materials. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Res Sci Teach 49: 218\textendash243, 2012},

keywords = {CLEAR, VISUAL},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{liu_investigation_2011,

title = {An Investigation of Explanation Multiple-Choice Items in Science Assessment},

author = {Ou Lydia Liu and Hee-Sun Lee and Marcia C Linn},

url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10627197.2011.611702},

doi = {10.1080/10627197.2011.611702},

issn = {1062-7197},

year  = {2011},

date = {2011-09-01},

urldate = {2017-11-18},

journal = {Educational Assessment},

volume = {16},

number = {3},

pages = {164--184},

abstract = {Both multiple-choice and constructed-response items have known advantages and disadvantages in measuring scientific inquiry. In this article we explore the function of explanation multiple-choice (EMC) items and examine how EMC items differ from traditional multiple-choice and constructed-response items in measuring scientific reasoning. A group of 794 middle school students was randomly assigned to answer either constructed-response or EMC items following regular multiple-choice items. By applying a Rasch partial-credit analysis, we found that there is a consistent alignment between the EMC and multiple-choice items. Also, the EMC items are easier than the constructed-response items but are harder than most of the multiple-choice items. We discuss the potential value of the EMC items as a learning and diagnostic tool.},

keywords = {CLEAR, VISUAL},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{mcelhaney_investigations_2011,

title = {Investigations of a complex, realistic task: Intentional, unsystematic, and exhaustive experimenters},

author = {Kevin W McElhaney and Marcia C Linn},

url = {http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/tea.20423/abstract},

doi = {10.1002/tea.20423},

issn = {1098-2736},

year  = {2011},

date = {2011-09-01},

urldate = {2017-11-18},

journal = {Journal of Research in Science Teaching},

volume = {48},

number = {7},

pages = {745--770},

abstract = {This study examines how students' experimentation with a virtual environment contributes to their understanding of a complex, realistic inquiry problem. We designed a week-long, technology-enhanced inquiry unit on car collisions. The unit uses new technologies to log students' experimentation choices. Physics students (n = 148) in six diverse high schools studied the unit and responded to pretests, posttests, and embedded assessments. We scored students' experimentation using four methods: total number of trials, variability of variable choices, propensity to vary one variable at a time, and coherence between investigation goals and experimentation methods. Students made moderate, significant overall pretest to posttest gains on physics understanding. Coherence was a strong predictor of learning, controlling for pretest scores and the other experimentation measures. We identify three categories of experimenters (intentional, unsystematic, and exhaustive) and illustrate these categories with examples. The findings suggest that students must combine disciplinary knowledge of the investigation with intentional investigation of the inquiry questions in order to understand the nature of the variables. Mechanically executing well-established experimentation procedures (such as varying one variable at a time or comprehensively exploring the experimentation space) is less likely to lead students to valuable insights about complex tasks. Our proposed categories extend and refine previous efforts to categorize experimenters by linking scientific procedures with understanding of the science discipline. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Res Sci Teach 48: 745\textendash770, 2011},

keywords = {VISUAL},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{chiu_knowledge_2011,

title = {Knowledge Integration and Wise Engineering},

author = {Jennifer Chiu and M Linn},

url = {http://docs.lib.purdue.edu/jpeer/vol1/iss1/2},

doi = {10.7771/2157-9288.1026},

issn = {2157-9288},

year  = {2011},

date = {2011-04-01},

journal = {Journal of Pre-College Engineering Education Research (J-PEER)},

volume = {1},

number = {1},

keywords = {CLEAR, MODELS, VISUAL},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{kali_teaching_2011,

title = {Teaching to design educational technologies},

author = {Yael Kali and Tamar Ronen-Fuhrmann},

url = {https://www.inderscienceonline.com/doi/abs/10.1504/IJLT.2011.040147},

doi = {10.1504/IJLT.2011.040147},

issn = {1477-8386},

year  = {2011},

date = {2011-01-01},

urldate = {2017-11-18},

journal = {International Journal of Learning Technology},

volume = {6},

number = {1},

pages = {4--23},

abstract = {Finding ways to support novice educational technology designers is of high importance in many design fields. In this research we examined three courses in which graduate students learned to design technology-based curriculum modules. The courses were based on a teaching model developed in a design-based research methodology with four iterations. The model integrates the openness of a studio approach, with the structure of a well-known instructional systems-design process. It also takes advantage of experts’ design knowledge embedded in a database of design principles. Qualitative data was used to evaluate the affordances and challenges of progressive versions of the teaching model. A generalised model for teaching educational technology design was derived, in which the following constructs are intertwined: astructuring the design processbbuilding on accessible repositories of expert design knowledgecenabling dialogic learning.},

keywords = {CLEAR, VISUAL},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{sampson_comparison_2011,

title = {A Comparison of the Collaborative Scientific Argumentation Practices of Two High and Two Low Performing Groups},

author = {Victor Sampson and Douglas B Clark},

url = {https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11165-009-9146-9},

doi = {10.1007/s11165-009-9146-9},

issn = {0157-244X, 1573-1898},

year  = {2011},

date = {2011-01-01},

urldate = {2017-11-18},

journal = {Research in Science Education},

volume = {41},

number = {1},

pages = {63--97},

abstract = {This qualitative study examines the interactions between individuals, ideas, and materials as two high and two low performing groups of students engaged in a process of collaborative scientific argumentation. To engage students in collaborative scientific argumentation the students were randomly assigned to small groups of three students each. Each triad was asked to critique six alternative explanations for a discrepant event and to produce a single written argument justifying the explanation they felt was most valid or acceptable. The two higher performing triads produced arguments that included a sufficient and accurate explanation that was well supported with appropriate evidence and reasoning while the two lower performing triads produced arguments that included an inaccurate explanation supported by inappropriate justification. A verbal analysis of the interactive processes that took place within these four triads identified five distinct differences in the ways these triads engaged in collaborative scientific argumentation that seemed to promote or constrain the development of high quality written arguments. These differences include (1) the number of unique ideas introduced into the conversation, (2) how individuals responded to these ideas, (3) how often individuals challenged ideas when discussing them, (4) the criteria individuals used to distinguish between ideas, and (5) how group members used the available corpus of data. The conclusions and implications of this study include recommendations for the design and revision of curriculum, the development of new instructional models and technology-enhanced learning environments, and areas for future research.},

keywords = {CLEAR, VISUAL},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{svihla_connecting_2011,

title = {Connecting Energy Across the Curriculum},

author = {Vanessa Svihla and K Ryoo and M C Linn and Chad Dorsey},

url = {https://concord.org/newsletter/2011-spring/connecting-energy-across-curriculum/},

year  = {2011},

date = {2011-01-01},

urldate = {2017-11-19},

journal = {@Concord},

volume = {15},

pages = {12--13},

abstract = {The importance of energy and energy use is evident in all corners of our lives. From the food we eat to the cars we drive, energy plays a central role in our political and social lives. Similarly, energy is one of the most central ideas in science. The flow and transformation of energy ties together},

keywords = {CLEAR},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{linn_off-shoring_2011,

title = {Off-shoring critical thinking},

author = {Marcia C Linn},

url = {http://www.sfgate.com/opinion/openforum/article/Off-shoring-critical-thinking-2367290.php},

year  = {2011},

date = {2011-01-01},

urldate = {2017-11-18},

journal = {San Francisco Chronicle},

abstract = {Nations seeking to compete for well-paying jobs in research, development and manufacturing are now adding proven critical thinking activities developed in America to their science courses. While American teachers are cutting back on experimentation, leaders in China, Taiwan, Korea, Norway and other countries are clamoring to use activities such as those found in the online, open source Web-based Inquiry Science Environment unit developed at UC Berkeley ( www.wise.berkeley.edu). Rather than memorizing the parts of an atom, students could learn and apply ideas about atoms while studying a unit on hydrogen fuel-cell cars. Students could use visualizations of chemical reactions to investigate the trade-offs between gasoline-powered and hydrogen-fuel-cell-powered cars and buses. [...] students prefer investigating scientific visualizations to textbooks and report that visualizations allow them to see how science works and to test their ideas.},

keywords = {VISUAL},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{gerard_professional_2011,

title = {Professional Development for Technology-Enhanced Inquiry Science},

author = {L F Gerard and K Varma and S B Corliss and M C Linn},

url = {http://rer.sagepub.com/cgi/doi/10.3102/0034654311415121},

doi = {10.3102/0034654311415121},

issn = {0034-6543, 1935-1046},

year  = {2011},

date = {2011-01-01},

urldate = {2017-11-19},

journal = {Review of Educational Research},

volume = {81},

number = {3},

pages = {408--448},

keywords = {CLEAR},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{linn_combining_2011,

title = {Combining Learning and Assessment to Improve Science Education},

author = {Marcia C Linn and Jennifer Chiu},

url = {https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1062825},

issn = {2161-4210},

year  = {2011},

date = {2011-01-01},

urldate = {2017-11-18},

journal = {Research & Practice in Assessment},

volume = {6},

pages = {5--14},

abstract = {High-stakes tests take time away from valuable learning activities, narrow the focus of instruction, and imply that science involves memorizing details rather than understanding the natural world. Current tests lead precollege instructors to postpone science inquiry activities until after the last standardized test is completed--often during the last week of school. Students spend countless hours practicing and taking multiple-choice tests that have little educational value. Learning tests that help students understand science and measure progress at the same time are needed. This article discusses the following topics regarding science education: (1) Learning Test Goals; (2) Teaching and Assessing Lifelong Learning; (3) Visualizations and Assessment; (4) Teaching and Assessing with Concept Maps; (5) Essay Questions, Learning, and Assessment; and (6) Improving Assessment in Lecture Classes. Valuable classroom time can be reclaimed by using online learning environments that incorporate learning tests to measure lifelong learning skills. Think about what would happen if scientists spent time memorizing new facts rather than investigating compelling problems. A focus on lifelong learning to the classroom needs to be restored to retain a competitive advantage in science.},

keywords = {VISUAL},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{lee_validating_2011,

title = {Validating Measurement of Knowledge Integration in Science Using Multiple-Choice and Explanation Items},

author = {Hee-Sun Lee and Ou Lydia Liu and Marcia C Linn},

issn = {0895-7347},

year  = {2011},

date = {2011-01-01},

urldate = {2017-11-18},

journal = {Applied Measurement in Education},

volume = {24},

number = {2},

pages = {115--136},

abstract = {This study explores measurement of a construct called knowledge integration in science using multiple-choice and explanation items. We use construct and instructional validity evidence to examine the role multiple-choice and explanation items plays in measuring students' knowledge integration ability. For construct validity, we analyze item properties such as alignment, discrimination, and target range on the knowledge integration scale using a Rasch Partial Credit Model analysis. For instructional validity, we test the sensitivity of multiple-choice and explanation items to knowledge integration instruction using a cohort comparison design. Results show that (1) one third of correct multiple-choice responses are aligned with higher levels of knowledge integration while three quarters of incorrect multiple-choice responses are aligned with lower levels of knowledge integration, (2) explanation items discriminate between high and low knowledge integration ability students much more effectively than multiple-choice items, (3) explanation items measure a wider range of knowledge integration levels than multiple-choice items, and (4) explanation items are more sensitive to knowledge integration instruction than multiple-choice items. (Contains 3 tables and 4 figures.)},

keywords = {CLEAR, MODELS, VISUAL},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{shen_technologyenhanced_2011,

title = {A Technology‐Enhanced Unit of Modeling Static Electricity: Integrating scientific explanations and everyday observations},

author = {Ji Shen and Marcia C Linn},

url = {http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09500693.2010.514012},

doi = {10.1080/09500693.2010.514012},

issn = {0950-0693},

year  = {2011},

date = {2011-01-01},

urldate = {2017-11-18},

journal = {International Journal of Science Education},

volume = {33},

number = {12},

pages = {1597--1623},

abstract = {What trajectories do students follow as they connect their observations of electrostatic phenomena to atomic‐level visualizations? We designed an electrostatics unit, using the knowledge integration framework to help students link observations and scientific ideas. We analyze how learners integrate ideas about charges, charged particles, energy, and observable events. We compare learning enactments in a typical school and a magnet school in the USA. We use pre‐tests, post‐tests, embedded notes, and delayed post‐tests to capture the trajectories of students’ knowledge integration. We analyze how visualizations help students grapple with abstract electrostatics concepts such as induction. We find that overall students gain more sophisticated ideas. They can interpret dynamic, interactive visualizations, and connect charge‐ and particle‐based explanations to interpret observable events. Students continue to have difficulty in applying the energy‐based explanation.},

keywords = {CLEAR, VISUAL},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{zhang_can_2011,

title = {Can generating representations enhance learning with dynamic visualizations?},

author = {Zhihui Helen Zhang and Marcia C Linn},

url = {http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/tea.20443/abstract},

doi = {10.1002/tea.20443},

issn = {1098-2736},

year  = {2011},

date = {2011-01-01},

urldate = {2017-11-18},

journal = {Journal of Research in Science Teaching},

volume = {48},

number = {10},

pages = {1177--1198},

abstract = {This study explores the impact of asking middle school students to generate drawings of their ideas about chemical reactions on integrated understanding. Students explored atomic interactions during hydrogen combustion using a dynamic visualization. The generation group drew their ideas about how the reaction takes place at the molecular level. The interaction group conducted multiple experiments with the visualization by varying the amount of energy provided to ignite the reaction. The generation group integrated more ideas about chemical reactions and made more precise interpretations of the visualization than the interaction group. Embedded assessments show that generation motivated students to interpret the visualization carefully and led to more productive explanations about ideas represented in the dynamic visualization. In contrast, the interaction group was less successful in linking the visualization to underlying concepts and observable phenomena and wrote less detailed explanations. The study suggests that drawing is a promising way to help students interpret complex visualizations and integrate information. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Res Sci Teach 48: 1177\textendash1198, 2011},

keywords = {CLEAR, VISUAL},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{linn_designing_2010-1,

title = {Designing Science Instruction using the Web-based Inquiry Science Environment (WISE)},

author = {Marcia C Linn and James. D Slotta and Hiroki Terashima and Elisa Stone and Jacquie Madhok},

year  = {2010},

date = {2010-12-01},

journal = {Asia-Pacific Forum on Science Learning and Teaching},

volume = {11},

number = {2},

keywords = {CLEAR},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{gerard_teacher_2010,

title = {Teacher use of evidence to customize inquiry science instruction},

author = {Libby F Gerard and Michele Spitulnik and Marcia C Linn},

url = {http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/tea.20367/abstract},

doi = {10.1002/tea.20367},

issn = {1098-2736},

year  = {2010},

date = {2010-11-01},

urldate = {2017-11-18},

journal = {Journal of Research in Science Teaching},

volume = {47},

number = {9},

pages = {1037--1063},

abstract = {This study investigated how professional development featuring evidence-based customization of technology-enhanced curriculum projects can improve inquiry science teaching and student knowledge integration in earth science. Participants included three middle school sixth-grade teachers and their classes of students (N = 787) for three consecutive years. Teachers used evidence from their student work to revise the curriculum projects and rethink their teaching strategies. Data were collected through teacher interviews, written reflections, classroom observations, curriculum artifacts, and student assessments. Results suggest that the detailed information about the learning activities of students provided by the assessments embedded in the online curriculum motivated curricular and pedagogical customizations that resulted in both teacher and student learning. Customizations initiated by teachers included revisions of embedded questions, additions of hands-on investigations, and modifications of teaching strategies. Student performance improved across the three cohorts of students with each year of instructional customization. Coupling evidence from student work with revisions of curriculum and instruction has promise for strengthening professional development and improving science learning. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Res Sci Teach 47: 1037\textendash1063, 2010},

keywords = {CLEAR, MODELS, VISUAL},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{lee_assessing_2010,

title = {Assessing learning progression of energy concepts across middle school grades: The knowledge integration perspective},

author = {Hee-Sun Lee and Ou Lydia Liu},

url = {http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/sce.20382/abstract},

doi = {10.1002/sce.20382},

issn = {1098-237X},

year  = {2010},

date = {2010-07-01},

urldate = {2017-11-20},

journal = {Science Education},

volume = {94},

number = {4},

pages = {665--688},

abstract = {We use a construct-based assessment approach to measure learning progression of energy concepts across physical, life, and earth science contexts in middle school grades. We model the knowledge integration construct in six levels in terms of the numbers of ideas and links used in student-generated explanations. For this study, we selected 10 items addressing energy source, transformation, and conservation from published standardized tests and administered them to a status quo sample of 2688 middle school students taught by 29 teachers in 12 schools across 5 states. Results based on a Rasch partial credit model analysis indicate that conservation items are associated with the highest knowledge integration levels, followed by transformation and source items. Comparisons across three middle school grades and across physical, life, and earth science contexts reveal that the mean knowledge integration level of eighth-grade students is significantly higher than that of sixth- or seventh-grade students, and that the mean knowledge integration level of students who took a physical science course is significantly higher than that of students who took a life or earth science course. We discuss implications for research on learning progressions. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed94:665\textendash688, 2010},

keywords = {CLEAR, TELS},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{shen_getting_2010,

title = {Getting from Here to There: The Roles of Policy Makers and Principals in Increasing Science Teacher Quality},

author = {Ji Shen and Libby Gerard and Jane Bowyer},

url = {https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10972-009-9180-5},

doi = {10.1007/s10972-009-9180-5},

issn = {1046-560X, 1573-1847},

year  = {2010},

date = {2010-04-01},

urldate = {2017-11-18},

journal = {Journal of Science Teacher Education},

volume = {21},

number = {3},

pages = {283--307},

abstract = {In this study we investigate how federal and state policy makers, and school principals are working to improve science teacher quality. Interviews, focused discussions, and policy documents serve as the primary data source. Findings suggest that both policy makers and principals prioritize increasing incentives for teachers entering the science teaching profession, providing professional development for new teachers, and using students’ data to evaluate and improve instruction. Differences between the two leadership groups emerged in terms of the grain size and practicality of their concerns. Our findings indicate that the complexity of educational challenges to improve science teacher quality call for the co-construction of policy by multiple constituent groups including school principals, federal and state policy makers, and science education researchers.},

keywords = {CLEAR, MODELS, TELS},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{shen_nurturing_2010,

title = {Nurturing Students’ Critical Knowledge Using Technology-enhanced Scaffolding Strategies in Science Education},

author = {Ji Shen},

url = {https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10956-009-9183-1},

doi = {10.1007/s10956-009-9183-1},

issn = {1059-0145, 1573-1839},

year  = {2010},

date = {2010-02-01},

urldate = {2017-11-20},

journal = {Journal of Science Education and Technology},

volume = {19},

number = {1},

pages = {1--12},

abstract = {Critique is central to the development of scientific knowledge. From a cognitive perspective, critique can be used to enhance understanding. From a social perspective, critique serves to maintain the standards of a professional field. In science education, it is of tremendous value to diagnose and nurture students’ critical knowledge. How students develop and apply criteria for critique, however, remains unclear. What factors influence students’ performance of critique, and how can educators incorporate technology-enhanced scaffolding strategies to help diagnose and nurture students’ critical knowledge? In this paper, I define critical knowledge as the criteria people use to evaluate other knowledge, the ability to use these criteria across contexts, and the reflective understanding of such processes. Building on existing literature, I develop a conceptual framework that describes the components and processes involved in a critique activity. Using this framework, I discuss the application of technology-enhanced scaffolding strategies to facilitate critique activities in science classrooms.},

keywords = {TELS},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{gerard_principal_2010,

title = {A principal community: Building school leadership for technology-enhanced science curriculum reform},

author = {Libby F Gerard and J B Bowyer and M C Linn},

year  = {2010},

date = {2010-01-01},

journal = {Journal of School Leadership},

volume = {20},

pages = {145--183},

keywords = {MODELS, VISUAL},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{gerard_how_2010,

title = {How Does a Community of Principals Develop Leadership for Technology-Enhanced Science?},

author = {Libby F Gerard and J B Bowyer and M C Linn},

year  = {2010},

date = {2010-01-01},

journal = {Journal of School Leadership},

volume = {20},

pages = {145--183},

keywords = {CLEAR, VISUAL},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{lindberg_new_2010,

title = {New trends in gender and mathematics performance: A meta-analysis},

author = {S M Lindberg and Janet Shibley Hyde and J L Peterson and M C Linn},

year  = {2010},

date = {2010-01-01},

journal = {Psychological Bulletin},

volume = {136},

number = {6},

pages = {1123--1135},

abstract = {In this article, we use meta-analysis to analyze gender differences in recent studies of mathematics performance. First, we meta-analyzed data from 242 studies published between 1990 and 2007, representing the testing of 1,286,350 people. Overall},

keywords = {CLEAR, VISUAL},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{liu_evaluating_2010,

title = {Evaluating inquiry-based science units using a Hierarchical Linear Model},

author = {O L Liu and Hee-Sun Lee and M C Linn},

year  = {2010},

date = {2010-01-01},

journal = {Educational Assessment},

volume = {15},

pages = {69--86},

keywords = {CLEAR, VISUAL},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{chang_impact_2010,

title = {The impact of designing and evaluating molecular animations on how well middle school students understand the particulate nature of matter},

author = {Hsin-Yi Chang and Chris Quintana and Joseph S Krajcik},

url = {http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/sce.20352/abstract},

doi = {10.1002/sce.20352},

issn = {1098-237X},

year  = {2010},

date = {2010-01-01},

urldate = {2017-11-19},

journal = {Science Education},

volume = {94},

number = {1},

pages = {73--94},

abstract = {In this study, we investigated whether the understanding of the particulate nature of matter by students was improved by allowing them to design and evaluate molecular animations of chemical phenomena. We developed Chemation, a learner-centered animation tool, to allow seventh-grade students to construct flipbook-like simple animations to show molecular models and dynamic processes. Eight classes comprising 271 students were randomly assigned to three treatments in which students used Chemation to (1) design, interpret, and evaluate animations, (2) only design and interpret animations, or (3) only view and interpret teacher-made animations. We employed 2-factor analysis of covariance and calculated effect sizes to examine the impact of the three treatments on student posttest performances and on student-generated animations and interpretations during class. We used the pretest data as a covariate to reduce a potential bias related to students' prior knowledge on their learning outcomes. The results indicate that designing animations coupled with peer evaluation is effective at improving student learning with instructional animation. On the other hand, the efficacy of allowing students to only design animations without peer evaluation is questionable compared with allowing students to view animations. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed94:73\textendash94, 2010},

keywords = {CLEAR},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{ermeling_tracing_2010,

title = {Tracing the effects of teacher inquiry on classroom practice},

author = {Bradley A Ermeling},

url = {http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0742051X09000559},

doi = {10.1016/j.tate.2009.02.019},

issn = {0742-051X},

year  = {2010},

date = {2010-01-01},

urldate = {2017-11-18},

journal = {Teaching and Teacher Education},

volume = {26},

number = {3},

pages = {377--388},

abstract = {Videotape and participant observation were used to document an American high school teacher workgroup's experience with collaborative teacher inquiry and to monitor changes in practice through two cycles of instructional planning, classroom implementation, and reflective analysis. Detectable changes in practice were observed, including a substantial improvement for two of the four teachers in fidelity of implementation of an instructional innovation. Results support claim that meaningful instructional changes are more likely when teachers work in job-alike teams, are led by trained leaders, use inquiry-focused protocols, and have stable settings in which to engage in the continuous improvement of instruction.},

keywords = {VISUAL},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}