@article{vitale_coordinating_2019,
title = {Coordinating between Graphs and Science Concepts: Density and Buoyancy},
author = {Jonathan M Vitale and Lauren Applebaum and Marcia C Linn},
doi = {10.1080/07370008.2018.1539736},
issn = {0737-0008},
year = {2019},
date = {2019-01-01},
journal = {Cognition and Instruction},
volume = {37},
number = {1},
pages = {38-72},
abstract = {Graphs illustrating complex scientific relationships require students to integrate multiple concepts and visual features into a coherent understanding. We investigate ways to support students in integrating their understanding of density concepts through a graph that is linked to a simulation depicting the relationship between mass, volume, and density. We randomly assigned 325 8th-grade students to 1 of 2 graphing activities. In the analyze condition, students plotted a set of data points selected to help clarify the relationship between mass, volume, and buoyancy, and then interacted with a guided simulation to improve their plotting accuracy. In the generate condition, students chose their own data points, and then interacted with a guided simulation to test and revise their choices. We found that, although analyze participants were more likely to construct accurate graphs, generate participants were more likely to develop a coherent understanding of density and buoyancy. Analyses of process data and interviews suggest that generate participants grappled with the mass-volume ratio by deliberately testing points and identifying patterns as they updated their understanding of science concepts. In contrast, analyze participants displayed less deliberate exploration of the graph space. We discuss how activities that integrate graph interpretation and concept refinement can deepen science learning.},
keywords = {GRIDS, PLANS},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{matuk_qualitative_2019,
title = {Qualitative Graphing in an Authentic Inquiry Context: How Construction and Critique Help Middle School Students to Reason about Cancer},
author = {Camillia Matuk and Jiayuan Zhang and Irina Uk and Marcia C Linn},
doi = {10.1002/tea.21533},
issn = {1098-2736},
year = {2019},
date = {2019-01-01},
journal = {Journal of Research in Science Teaching},
volume = {56},
number = {7},
pages = {905-936},
abstract = {Inquiry instruction often neglects graphing. It gives students few opportunities to develop the knowledge and skills necessary to take advantage of graphs, and which are called for by current science education standards. Yet, it is not well known how to support graphing skills, particularly within middle school science inquiry contexts. Using qualitative graphs is a promising, but underexplored approach. In contrast to quantitative graphs, which can lead students to focus too narrowly on the mechanics of plotting points, qualitative graphs can encourage students to relate graphical representations to their conceptual meaning. Guided by the Knowledge Integration framework, which recognizes and guides students in integrating their diverse ideas about science, we incorporated qualitative graphing activities into a seventh grade web-based inquiry unit about cell division and cancer treatment. In Study 1, we characterized the kinds of graphs students generated in terms of their integration of graphical and scientific knowledge. We also found that students (n = 30) using the unit made significant learning gains based on their pretest to post-test scores. In Study 2, we compared students' performance in two versions of the same unit: One that had students construct, and second that had them critique qualitative graphs. Results showed that both activities had distinct benefits, and improved students' (n = 117) integrated understanding of graphs and science. Specifically, critiquing graphs helped students improve their scientific explanations within the unit, while constructing graphs led students to link key science ideas within both their in-unit and post-unit explanations. We discuss the relative affordances and constraints of critique and construction activities, and observe students' common misunderstandings of graphs. In all, this study offers a critical exploration of how to design instruction that simultaneously supports students' science and graph understanding within complex inquiry contexts.},
keywords = {PLANS},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{matuk_why_2018,
title = {Why and How Do Middle School Students Exchange Ideas during Science Inquiry?},
author = {Camillia Matuk and Marcia C Linn},
doi = {10.1007/s11412-018-9282-1},
issn = {1556-1615},
year = {2018},
date = {2018-09-01},
journal = {International Journal of Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning},
volume = {13},
number = {3},
pages = {263-299},
abstract = {Science is increasingly characterized by participation in knowledge communities. To meaningfully engage in science inquiry, students must be able to evaluate diverse sources of information, articulate informed ideas, and share ideas with peers. This study explores how technology can support idea exchanges in ways that value individuals' prior ideas, and allow students to use these ideas to benefit their own and their peers' learning. We used the Idea Manager, a curriculum-integrated tool that enables students to collect and exchange ideas during science inquiry projects. We investigated how students exchanged ideas, how these exchanges impacted the explanations they ultimately produced, and how the tool impacted teachers' instruction. We implemented the tool with 297 grade 7 students, who were studying a web-based unit on cancer and cell division. Among other results, we found a relationship between the diversity of students' ideas, and the sources of those ideas (i.e., whether they came from the students themselves or from their peers), and the quality of students' scientific explanations. Specifically, students who collected more unique ideas (i.e., ideas not already represented in their private idea collections) as opposed to redundant ideas (i.e., ideas that reiterated ideas already present in their private idea collections) tended to write poorer explanations; and students who generated their own redundant ideas, as opposed to choosing peers' ideas that were redundant, tended to write better explanations. We discuss implications for formative assessment, and for the role of technology in supporting students to engage more meaningfully with peers' ideas.},
keywords = {PLANS},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{svihla_distributed_2018,
title = {Distributed Practice in Classroom Inquiry Science Learning},
author = {Vanessa Svihla and Michael J Wester and Marcia C Linn},
doi = {10.1080/23735082.2017.1371321},
issn = {2373-5082},
year = {2018},
date = {2018-07-01},
journal = {Learning: Research and Practice},
volume = {4},
number = {2},
pages = {180-202},
abstract = {This study is inspired by laboratory studies demonstrating that distributing study sessions over time better supports learning and retention than clustering sessions. We compare two implementations of a multi-day inquiry science unit: in the clustered instruction condition, students completed an inquiry unit in five consecutive class periods. In the distributed instruction condition, students completed one activity per week for five weeks. Both conditions resulted in significant and similar gains in understanding and retention overall. Students' self-directed revisits to previously studied materials differed by condition, with students in the clustered condition tending to visit materials studied on previous days. These distal revisits explained variance in delayed post-test scores as an interaction effect with condition. Students in the clustered condition who revisited distal materials tended to score higher on the delayed post-test, whereas those in the distributed condition who did so tended to score lower. Our findings illustrate the complexity of realising laboratory findings in classrooms under real-world conditions.},
keywords = {CLASS, GRIDS, PLANS},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{mcbride_middle_2018,
title = {Middle School Student Ideas on the Relative Affordances of Physical and Virtual Models},
author = {Elizabeth McBride and Jonathan Vitale and Marcia Linn},
year = {2018},
date = {2018-07-01},
keywords = {PLANS},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{mcbride_learning_2018,
title = {Learning Design Through Science vs. Science Through Design},
author = {Elizabeth McBride and Jonathan Vitale and Marcia Linn},
year = {2018},
date = {2018-07-01},
keywords = {PLANS},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{harrison_encouraging_2018,
title = {Encouraging Revision of Scientific Ideas with Critique in an Online Genetics Unit},
author = {Emily Jean Harrison and Libby Gerard and Marcia Linn},
year = {2018},
date = {2018-07-01},
keywords = {PLANS},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{zertuche_how_2017,
title = {How Do Openers Contribute to Student Learning?},
author = {Amber Zertuche and Libby Gerard and Marcia C Linn},
issn = {1307-9298},
year = {2017},
date = {2017-01-01},
journal = {International Electronic Journal of Elementary Education},
volume = {5},
number = {1},
pages = {79-92},
abstract = {Openers, or brief activities that initiate a class, routinely take up classroom time each day yet little isknown about how to design these activities so they contribute to student learning. This study usestechnology-enhanced learning environments to explore new opportunities to transform Openersfrom potentially busy work to knowledge generating activities. This study compares the impact ofteacher-designed Openers, Opener designs based on recent research emphasizing knowledgeintegration, and no Opener for an 8th grade technology-enhanced inquiry science investigation.Results suggest that students who participate in a researcher-designed Opener are more likely torevisit and refine their work, and to make significant learning gains, than students who do notparticipate in an Opener. Students make the greatest gains when they revisit key evidence in thetechnology-enhanced curriculum unit prior to revision. Engaging students in processes that promoteknowledge integration during the Opener motivate students to revise their ideas. The results suggestdesign principles for Openers in technology-enhanced instruction.},
keywords = {VISUAL},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{applebaum_comparing_2017,
title = {Comparing Design Constraints to Support Learning in Technology-Guided Inquiry Projects},
author = {Lauren R Applebaum and Jonathan M Vitale and Elizabeth Gerard and Marcia C Linn},
issn = {1176-3647},
year = {2017},
date = {2017-01-01},
journal = {Journal of Educational Technology & Society},
volume = {20},
number = {4},
pages = {179-190},
abstract = {[ABSTRACT Physical design projects are a way to motivate and engage students in authentic science and engineering practices. Web-based tools can support design projects to ensure that students address and reflect upon critical science concepts during the course of the project. In addition, by specifying challenging design goals that require students to consider potential trade-offs between features, web-based tools may promote more deliberative scientific inquiry than open-ended or feature maximization goals. To study the role of web-supported projects, we developed an online curriculum that guides students through the planning, building, and analysis of self-propelled vehicles. To address content related to energy transformation we incorporated virtual models that display dynamic graphs of energy levels as a virtual scooter travels along a path. We compared two design goals for the project with different constraints. In the target version students are prompted to build virtual and physical scooters to reach a specific position. In the distance version students are prompted to maximize the distance the scooter travels. Our results indicate that students learned energy concepts from both versions; however, students with the target version did refer to the virtual model in their posttest responses to a greater degree than those with the distance version.]},
keywords = {CLASS, PLANS},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{chiu_supporting_2017,
title = {Supporting Informed Engineering Design across Formal and Informal Contexts with WIS Engineering},
author = {J Chiu and Amanda Gonczi and X Fu and M D Burghardt},
year = {2017},
date = {2017-01-01},
volume = {33},
pages = {371-381},
abstract = {This paper describes the design of WISEngineering, a computer-based engineering design environment focused on helping learners in formal and informal settings engage in informed engineering design activities. This paper compares and contrasts results of implementing WISEngineering projects in both formal and informal learning settings. In particular, this paper reports on insights gleaned from implementing WISEngineering middle school science and math classrooms as well as in after-school settings with Boys and Girls Clubs. We discuss design principles guiding the development of WISEngineering for school settings and how these principles were adapted and refined for youth and facilitators in informal learning contexts. We provide implications for the design of technology-enhanced engineering learning environments across school and out-of-school time settings.},
keywords = {PLANS},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{tansomboon_designing_2017-2,
title = {Designing Automated Guidance to Promote Productive Revision of Science Explanations},
author = {Charissa Tansomboon and Libby F Gerard and Jonathan M Vitale and Marcia C Linn},
doi = {10.1007/s40593-017-0145-0},
issn = {1560-4306},
year = {2017},
date = {2017-01-01},
journal = {International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education},
volume = {27},
number = {4},
pages = {729-757},
abstract = {Supporting students to revise their written explanations in science can help students to integrate disparate ideas and develop a coherent, generative account of complex scientific topics. Using natural language processing to analyze student written work, we compare forms of automated guidance designed to motivate productive revision and help students integrate their understanding of science. Research shows the benefit of providing timely, transparent guidance to students and identifies some challenges. Specifically, (a) students often believe online guidance is generic rather than adapted to their response; and (b) students do not always engage effortfully with online guidance to improve their written responses. We conducted two studies to address these challenges. In Study 1, we created transparent guidance that clarified how the computer personalizes guidance based on the student response. We hypothesized that transparent guidance would be especially valuable for low prior knowledge students who might expect the computer guidance to be too difficult. We found that transparent guidance had a greater impact than typical guidance on low prior knowledge student revisions, suggesting that student beliefs about how guidance is designed influence their performance. In Study 2, implemented in six schools, we compared two specific guidance strategies: revisiting evidence and planning writing changes. We found that both revisiting and planning guidance resulted in significant improvement in student knowledge integration, although neither guidance strategy showed a significant advantage over the other. In addition, we found that the form of guidance interacted with school, suggesting that teacher practices could reinforce a specific guidance strategy. These results illustrate ways to design guidance to strengthen student understanding of science. They raise important questions about when to encourage revisiting, how to design instruction focused on planning, and how to instill a lifelong practice of engaging in iterative refinement of scientific explanations.},
keywords = {CLASS, GRIDS, PLANS},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{lai_measuring_2016,
title = {Measuring Graph Comprehension, Critique, and Construction in Science},
author = {Kevin Lai and Julio Cabrera and Jonathan M Vitale and Jacquie Madhok and Robert Tinker and Marcia C Linn},
doi = {10.1007/s10956-016-9621-9},
issn = {1059-0145, 1573-1839},
year = {2016},
date = {2016-08-01},
journal = {Journal of Science Education and Technology},
volume = {25},
number = {4},
pages = {665-681},
keywords = {CLASS, GRIDS, PLANS},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{petra_supporting_2016,
title = {Supporting Students to Become Autonomous Learners: The Role of Web-Based Learning},
author = {Siti Fatimah Petra and Jainatul Halida Jaidin and JSH Quintus Perera and Marcia Linn},
doi = {10.1108/IJILT-05-2016-0017},
issn = {2056-4880},
year = {2016},
date = {2016-08-01},
journal = {International Journal of Information and Learning Technology},
volume = {33},
number = {4},
pages = {263-275},
keywords = {CLASS, GRIDS, PLANS},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{matuk_iteratively_2016,
title = {Iteratively Refining a Science Explanation Tool Through Classroom Implementation and Stakeholder Partnerships},
author = {Camillia Matuk and Kevin W McElhaney and Jennifer King Chen and Jonathan {Lim-Breitbart} and Douglas Kirkpatrick and Marcia C Linn},
doi = {10.14434/ijdl.v7i2.20203},
issn = {2159-449X},
year = {2016},
date = {2016-06-01},
journal = {International Journal of Designs for Learning},
volume = {7},
number = {2},
abstract = {Science inquiry challenges students to synthesize various ideas about complex phenomena into coherent explanations. It also challenges teachers, who must guide their diverse students' developing understanding during student-paced investigations. We describe the Idea Manager, a suite of web-based, curriculum-integrated tools that (a) guides students' knowledge integration as they generate, distinguish, and reconcile their ideas; and (b) provides means for teachers to monitor learning over the course of technology-enhanced science inquiry units. With the Idea Manager tool, students document short, text-based ideas, tag and sort them along various attributes, and exchange them with classmates. At culminating points of their investigations, students graphically organize their ideas to prepare written scientific explanations. Meanwhile, logs of idea entries, revisions, and meta-data inform teachers' and researchers' decisions about instruction and design.This paper offers an account of the design moves made in refining the Idea Manager, and highlights the importance of teacher-researcher partnerships and classroom implementations. Through designers' artifacts, classroom research findings, and teachers' and researchers' reflections, we illustrate the tool's origins; our strategies for testing new features and eliciting stakeholders' feedback, and how middle and high school classroom implementations inform the tool's continued iterations. Based on learning theory and on our own 40+ collective years of classroom teaching experience, we explain our design decisions and describe how new features and patterns for the tool's use emerged from a community of researchers. Finally, we reflect on the process of iteration that advances both theory and design, and on the value of pedagogically-driven technology design.},
keywords = {CLASS, GRIDS, PLANS},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{liu_validation_2016,
title = {Validation of Automated Scoring of Science Assessments},
author = {Ou Lydia Liu and Joseph A Rios and Michael Heilman and Libby Gerard and Marcia C Linn},
doi = {10.1002/tea.21299},
issn = {1098-2736},
year = {2016},
date = {2016-02-01},
journal = {Journal of Research in Science Teaching},
volume = {53},
number = {2},
pages = {215-233},
abstract = {Constructed response items can both measure the coherence of student ideas and serve as reflective experiences to strengthen instruction. We report on new automated scoring technologies that can reduce the cost and complexity of scoring constructed-response items. This study explored the accuracy of c-rater-ML, an automated scoring engine developed by Educational Testing Service, for scoring eight science inquiry items that require students to use evidence to explain complex phenomena. Automated scoring showed satisfactory agreement with human scoring for all test takers as well as specific subgroups. These findings suggest that c-rater-ML offers a promising solution to scoring constructed-response science items and has the potential to increase the use of these items in both instruction and assessment. textcopyright 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Res Sci Teach 53: 215\textendash233, 2016.},
keywords = {CLASS, GRIDS, PLANS},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{gerard_using_2016,
title = {Using Automated Scores of Student Essays to Support Teacher Guidance in Classroom Inquiry},
author = {Libby F Gerard and Marcia C Linn},
doi = {10.1007/s10972-016-9455-6},
issn = {1046-560X, 1573-1847},
year = {2016},
date = {2016-02-01},
journal = {Journal of Science Teacher Education},
volume = {27},
number = {1},
pages = {111-129},
abstract = {Computer scoring of student written essays about an inquiry topic can be used to diagnose student progress both to alert teachers to struggling students and to generate automated guidance. We identify promising ways for teachers to add value to automated guidance to improve student learning. Three teachers from two schools and their 386 students participated. We draw on evidence from student progress, observations of how teachers interact with students, and reactions of teachers. The findings suggest that alerts for teachers prompted rich teacher\textendashstudent conversations about energy in photosynthesis. In one school, the combination of the automated guidance plus teacher guidance was more effective for student science learning than two rounds of personalized, automated guidance. In the other school, both approaches resulted in equal learning gains. These findings suggest optimal combinations of automated guidance and teacher guidance to support students to revise explanations during inquiry and build integrated understanding of science.},
keywords = {CLASS, GRIDS, PLANS},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{donnelly_enhancing_2016,
title = {Enhancing Student Explanations of Evolution: Comparing Elaborating and Competing Theory Prompts: ENHANCING EXPLANATIONS OF EVOLUTION},
author = {Dermot F Donnelly and Bahadir Namdar and Jonathan M Vitale and Kevin Lai and Marcia C Linn},
doi = {10.1002/tea.21331},
issn = {00224308},
year = {2016},
date = {2016-01-01},
journal = {Journal of Research in Science Teaching},
volume = {53},
number = {9},
pages = {1341-1363},
keywords = {GRIDS, PLANS},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{gerard_automated_2016,
title = {Automated Guidance for Student Inquiry.},
author = {Libby F Gerard and Kihyun Ryoo and Kevin W McElhaney and Ou Lydia Liu and Anna N Rafferty and Marcia C Linn},
doi = {10.1037/edu0000052},
issn = {1939-2176, 0022-0663},
year = {2016},
date = {2016-01-01},
journal = {Journal of Educational Psychology},
volume = {108},
number = {1},
pages = {60-81},
keywords = {CLASS, GRIDS, PLANS},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{ryoo_designing_2016,
title = {Designing Automated Guidance for Concept Diagrams in Inquiry Instruction: Designing Automated Guidance For Inquiry Learning},
author = {Kihyun Ryoo and Marcia C Linn},
doi = {10.1002/tea.21321},
issn = {00224308},
year = {2016},
date = {2016-01-01},
journal = {Journal of Research in Science Teaching},
volume = {53},
number = {7},
pages = {1003-1035},
keywords = {CLASS, GRIDS, PLANS},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{schwendimann_comparing_2016-3,
title = {Comparing Two Forms of Concept Map Critique Activities to Facilitate Knowledge Integration Processes in Evolution Education},
author = {Beat A Schwendimann and Marcia C Linn},
doi = {10.1002/tea.21244},
issn = {1098-2736},
year = {2016},
date = {2016-01-01},
journal = {Journal of Research in Science Teaching},
volume = {53},
number = {1},
pages = {70-94},
abstract = {Concept map activities often lack a subsequent revision step that facilitates knowledge integration. This study compares two collaborative critique activities using a Knowledge Integration Map (KIM), a form of concept map. Four classes of high school biology students (n = 81) using an online inquiry-based learning unit on evolution were assigned to one of two conditions. Student dyads in one condition compared their concept maps against an expert map while dyads in the other condition conducted a peer-review. Analysis of the concept maps suggests that students in both conditions improved their understanding of evolution from pretest to posttest. However, the two conditions lead to different criteria: Students in the expert-map condition focused mostly on concept-focused criteria like concept classification while students in the peer-review condition used more link-focused criteria like link labels and missing connections. This paper suggests that both forms of KIM critique activities can be beneficial for constructing more coherent connections across different topics in evolution education. These results support the value of collaborative KIM critique activities and help clarify the forms of collaborative activities that are most likely to be effective to facilitate knowledge integration processes. textcopyright 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Res Sci Teach 53: 70\textendash94, 2016.},
keywords = {CLASS, GRIDS, VISUAL},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{matuk_gathering_2016-1,
title = {Gathering Requirements for Teacher Tools: Strategies for Empowering Teachers Through Co-Design},
author = {Camillia Matuk and Libby Gerard and Jonathan {Lim-Breitbart} and Marcia Linn},
doi = {10.1007/s10972-016-9459-2},
issn = {1573-1847},
year = {2016},
date = {2016-01-01},
journal = {Journal of Science Teacher Education},
volume = {27},
number = {1},
pages = {79-110},
abstract = {Technology can enhance teachers' practice in multiple ways. It can help them better understand patterns in their students' thinking, manage class progress at individual and group levels, and obtain evidence to inform modifications to curriculum and instruction. Such technology is most effective when it is aligned with teachers' goals and expectations. Participatory methods, which involve teachers closely in the design process, are widely recommended for establishing accurate design requirements that address users' needs. By collaborating with researchers, teachers can contribute their professional expertise to shape the tools of their practice, and ultimately ensure their sustained use. However, there is little guidance available for maintaining effective teacher\textendashresearcher design partnerships. We describe four strategies for engaging teachers in designing tools intended to support and enhance their practice within a web-based science learning environment: discussing physical artifacts, reacting to scenarios, customizing prototypes, and writing user stories. Using design artifacts and documents of teachers' reflections, we illustrate how we applied these techniques over 5 years of annual professional development workshops, and examine their affordances for eliciting teachers' ideas. We reflect on how these approaches have helped inform technology refinements and innovations. We moreover discuss the further benefits these strategies have had in encouraging teachers to reflect on their own practice and on the roles of technology in supporting it; and in allowing researchers to gain a deeper understanding of the relationship between technology, teaching, and design.},
keywords = {CLASS, GRIDS, PLANS},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{vitale_distinguishing_2016,
title = {Distinguishing Complex Ideas about Climate Change: Knowledge Integration vs. Specific Guidance},
author = {Jonathan M Vitale and Elizabeth McBride and Marcia C Linn},
doi = {10.1080/09500693.2016.1198969},
issn = {0950-0693, 1464-5289},
year = {2016},
date = {2016-01-01},
journal = {International Journal of Science Education},
volume = {38},
number = {9},
pages = {1548-1569},
keywords = {CLASS, GRIDS, PLANS},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{gerard_technology_2016,
title = {Technology as Inquiry Teaching Partner},
author = {Libby Gerard and Camillia Matuk and Marcia C Linn},
doi = {10.1007/s10972-016-9457-4},
issn = {1046-560X, 1573-1847},
year = {2016},
date = {2016-01-01},
journal = {Journal of Science Teacher Education},
volume = {27},
number = {1},
pages = {1-9},
abstract = {No Abstract available for this article.},
keywords = {CLASS, GRIDS, PLANS},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{linn_science_2016,
title = {Science Education: From Separation to Integration},
author = {Marcia C Linn and Libby Gerard and Camillia Matuk and Kevin W McElhaney},
doi = {10.3102/0091732X16680788},
issn = {0091-732X},
year = {2016},
date = {2016-01-01},
journal = {Review of Research in Education},
volume = {40},
number = {1},
pages = {529-587},
abstract = {Advances in technology, science, and learning sciences research over the past 100 years have reshaped science education. This chapter focuses on how investigators from varied fields of inquiry who initially worked separately began to interact, eventually formed partnerships, and recently integrated their perspectives to strengthen science education. Advances depended on the broadening of the participants in science education research, starting with psychologists, science discipline experts, and science educators; adding science teachers, psychometricians, computer scientists, and sociologists; and eventually including leaders in cultural studies, linguistics, and neuroscience. This process depended on renegotiating power structures, deliberate funding decisions by the National Science Foundation and others, and sustained, creative teamwork. It reflects a growing commitment to ensure that all learners are respected and that all students learn to address the complex scientific dilemmas they face in their lives. This chapter traces the evolution of research on science education in the United States with a focus on 5- to 17-year-olds. It highlights trends in the view of the learner, the design of instruction, the role of professional development, and the impact of technology. The chapter closes with recommendations designed to realize the full potential of these advances.},
keywords = {CLASS, GRIDS, PLANS},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{gonczi_wisengineering_2016,
title = {WISEngineering Hydroponics: A Technology-Enhanced, Life Science Engineering Design Unit},
author = {Amanda Gonczi and Jennifer Chiu},
doi = {10.2505/4/ss16_039_09_19},
year = {2016},
date = {2016-01-01},
journal = {Science Scope},
volume = {39},
keywords = {CLASS, GRIDS},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{svihla_revisiting_2015,
title = {Revisiting for Retention: An Analytic for Inquiry Science Learning.},
author = {Vanessa Svihla and Michael J Wester and Marcia C Linn},
doi = {10.18608/jla.2015.22.7},
issn = {19297750},
year = {2015},
date = {2015-12-01},
journal = {Journal of Learning Analytics},
volume = {2},
number = {2},
pages = {75-101},
keywords = {CLASS, GRIDS, PLANS},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{donnelly_automated_2015,
title = {Automated Guidance for Thermodynamics Essays: Critiquing Versus Revisiting},
author = {Dermot F Donnelly and Jonathan M Vitale and Marcia C Linn},
doi = {10.1007/s10956-015-9569-1},
issn = {1059-0145, 1573-1839},
year = {2015},
date = {2015-12-01},
journal = {Journal of Science Education and Technology},
volume = {24},
number = {6},
pages = {861-874},
keywords = {CLASS, GRIDS, VISUAL},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{vitale_taking_2015,
title = {Taking Advantage of Automated Assessment of Student-Constructed Graphs in Science: AUTO ASSESSMENT OF STUDENT GRAPHS},
author = {Jonathan M Vitale and Kevin Lai and Marcia C Linn},
doi = {10.1002/tea.21241},
issn = {00224308},
year = {2015},
date = {2015-12-01},
journal = {Journal of Research in Science Teaching},
volume = {52},
number = {10},
pages = {1426-1450},
keywords = {CLASS, GRIDS, VISUAL},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{svihla_distributed_2015-1,
title = {Distributed Revisiting: An Analytic for Retention of Coherent Science Learning},
author = {Vanessa Svihla and Michael J Wester and Marcia C Linn},
doi = {10.18608/jla.2015.22.7},
issn = {1929-7750},
year = {2015},
date = {2015-12-01},
journal = {Journal of Learning Analytics},
volume = {2},
number = {2},
pages = {75-101},
keywords = {CLASS, GRIDS, PLANS},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{gerard_automated_2015,
title = {Automated, Adaptive Guidance for K-12 Education},
author = {Libby Gerard and Camillia Matuk and Kevin McElhaney and Marcia C Linn},
doi = {10.1016/j.edurev.2015.04.001},
issn = {1747938X},
year = {2015},
date = {2015-06-01},
journal = {Educational Research Review},
volume = {15},
pages = {41-58},
keywords = {CLASS, GRIDS, VISUAL},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{matuk_technology_2015,
title = {Technology to Support Teachers Using Evidence from Student Work to Customize Technology-Enhanced Inquiry Units},
author = {Camillia F Matuk and Marcia C Linn and Bat-Sheva Eylon},
doi = {10.1007/s11251-014-9338-1},
issn = {0020-4277, 1573-1952},
year = {2015},
date = {2015-03-01},
journal = {Instructional Science},
volume = {43},
number = {2},
pages = {229-257},
keywords = {CLASS, GRIDS, VISUAL},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{linn_undergraduate_2015,
title = {Undergraduate Research Experiences: Impacts and Opportunities},
author = {M C Linn and E Palmer and A Baranger and E Gerard and E Stone},
doi = {10.1126/science.1261757},
issn = {0036-8075, 1095-9203},
year = {2015},
date = {2015-02-01},
journal = {Science},
volume = {347},
number = {6222},
pages = {1261757-1261757},
keywords = {CLASS, GRIDS, VISUAL},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{liu_measuring_2015-1,
title = {Measuring Knowledge Integration Learning of Energy Topics: A Two-Year Longitudinal Study},
author = {Ou Lydia Liu and Kihyun Ryoo and Marcia C Linn and Elissa Sato and Vanessa Svihla},
doi = {10.1080/09500693.2015.1016470},
issn = {0950-0693, 1464-5289},
year = {2015},
date = {2015-01-01},
journal = {International Journal of Science Education},
volume = {37},
number = {7},
pages = {1044-1066},
keywords = {CLASS, GRIDS, VISUAL},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{miller_womens_2015,
title = {Women's Representation in Science Predicts National Gender-Science Stereotypes: Evidence from 66 Nations.},
author = {David I Miller and Alice H Eagly and Marcia C Linn},
doi = {10.1037/edu0000005},
issn = {1939-2176, 0022-0663},
year = {2015},
date = {2015-01-01},
journal = {Journal of Educational Psychology},
volume = {107},
number = {3},
pages = {631-644},
keywords = {CLASS, VISUAL},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{ryoo_designing_2015,
title = {Designing and Validating Assessments of Complex Thinking in Science},
author = {Kihyun Ryoo and Marcia C Linn},
doi = {10.1080/00405841.2015.1044374},
issn = {0040-5841, 1543-0421},
year = {2015},
date = {2015-01-01},
journal = {Theory Into Practice},
volume = {54},
number = {3},
pages = {238-254},
keywords = {CLASS, GRIDS, VISUAL},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{mcelhaney_evidence_2015,
title = {Evidence for Effective Uses of Dynamic Visualisations in Science Curriculum Materials},
author = {Kevin W McElhaney and Hsin-Yi Chang and Jennifer L Chiu and Marcia C Linn},
doi = {10.1080/03057267.2014.984506},
issn = {0305-7267, 1940-8412},
year = {2015},
date = {2015-01-01},
journal = {Studies in Science Education},
volume = {51},
number = {1},
pages = {49-85},
keywords = {CLASS, GRIDS, VISUAL},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{visintainer_sixth-grade_2015,
title = {Sixth-Grade Students' Progress in Understanding the Mechanisms of Global Climate Change},
author = {Tammie Visintainer and Marcia Linn},
doi = {10.1007/s10956-014-9538-0},
issn = {1059-0145, 1573-1839},
year = {2015},
date = {2015-01-01},
journal = {Journal of Science Education and Technology},
volume = {24},
number = {2-3},
pages = {287-310},
keywords = {CLASS, GRIDS, VISUAL},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{linn_designing_2015,
title = {Designing Instruction to Improve Lifelong Inquiry Learning},
author = {Marcia C Linn and Bat-Sheva Eylon and Anna Rafferty and Jonathan M Vitale},
doi = {10.12973/eurasia.2015.1317a},
issn = {1305-8215, 1305-8223},
year = {2015},
date = {2015-01-01},
journal = {Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education},
volume = {11},
number = {2},
pages = {217-225},
abstract = {Citizens need the capability to conduct their own inquiry projects so that they can make sense of claims about new energy policies, health remedies, or financial opportunities. To develop the lifelong capability to grapple with these dilemmas, we report on ways to design precollege units that...},
keywords = {CLASS, GRIDS},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{donnelly_impacts_2014,
title = {Impacts and Characteristics of Computer-Based Science Inquiry Learning Environments for Precollege Students},
author = {D F Donnelly and M C Linn and S Ludvigsen},
doi = {10.3102/0034654314546954},
issn = {0034-6543, 1935-1046},
year = {2014},
date = {2014-12-01},
journal = {Review of Educational Research},
volume = {84},
number = {4},
pages = {572-608},
keywords = {CLASS, CLEAR, VISUAL},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{ryoo_designing_2014,
title = {Designing Guidance for Interpreting Dynamic Visualizations: Generating versus Reading Explanations: GUIDANCE FOR INTERPRETING DYNAMIC VISUALIZATIONS},
author = {Kihyun Ryoo and Marcia C Linn},
doi = {10.1002/tea.21128},
issn = {00224308},
year = {2014},
date = {2014-02-01},
journal = {Journal of Research in Science Teaching},
volume = {51},
number = {2},
pages = {147-174},
keywords = {CLASS, CLEAR, VISUAL},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{chiu_supporting_2014,
title = {Supporting Knowledge Integration in Chemistry with a Visualization-Enhanced Inquiry Unit},
author = {Jennifer L Chiu and Marcia C Linn},
doi = {10.1007/s10956-013-9449-5},
issn = {1059-0145, 1573-1839},
year = {2014},
date = {2014-02-01},
journal = {Journal of Science Education and Technology},
volume = {23},
number = {1},
pages = {37-58},
keywords = {CLASS},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{vitale_applying_2014,
title = {Applying Grounded Coordination Challenges to Concrete Learning Materials: A Study of Number Line Estimation.},
author = {Jonathan M Vitale and John B Black and Michael I Swart},
doi = {10.1037/a0034098},
issn = {1939-2176, 0022-0663},
year = {2014},
date = {2014-01-01},
journal = {Journal of Educational Psychology},
volume = {106},
number = {2},
pages = {403-418},
keywords = {CLASS, VISUAL},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{liu_automated_2014,
title = {Automated Scoring of Constructed-Response Science Items: Prospects and Obstacles},
author = {Ou Lydia Liu and Chris Brew and John Blackmore and Libby Gerard and Jacquie Madhok and Marcia C Linn},
doi = {10.1111/emip.12028},
issn = {07311745},
year = {2014},
date = {2014-01-01},
journal = {Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice},
volume = {33},
number = {2},
pages = {19-28},
keywords = {CLASS, CLEAR, VISUAL},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{linn_computer-guided_2014,
title = {Computer-Guided Inquiry to Improve Science Learning},
author = {M C Linn and L Gerard and K Ryoo and K McElhaney and O L Liu and A N Rafferty},
doi = {10.1126/science.1245980},
issn = {0036-8075, 1095-9203},
year = {2014},
date = {2014-01-01},
journal = {Science},
volume = {344},
number = {6180},
pages = {155-156},
keywords = {CLASS, CLEAR},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{de_jong_physical_2013,
title = {Physical and Virtual Laboratories in Science and Engineering Education},
author = {Ton {de Jong} and Marcia C Linn and Zacharias C Zacharia},
doi = {10.1126/science.1230579},
issn = {0036-8075, 1095-9203},
year = {2013},
date = {2013-04-01},
journal = {Science},
volume = {340},
number = {6130},
pages = {305-308},
abstract = {The world needs young people who are skillful in and enthusiastic about science and who view science as their future career field. Ensuring that we will have such young people requires initiatives that engage students in interesting and motivating science experiences. Today, students can investigate scientific phenomena using the tools, data collection techniques, models, and theories of science in physical laboratories that support interactions with the material world or in virtual laboratories that take advantage of simulations. Here, we review a selection of the literature to contrast the value of physical and virtual investigations and to offer recommendations for combining the two to strengthen science learning.},
keywords = {CLASS, CLEAR, VISUAL},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{chang_scaffolding_2013,
title = {Scaffolding Learning from Molecular Visualizations: SCAFFOLDING MOLECULAR VISUALIZATIONS},
author = {Hsin-Yi Chang and Marcia C Linn},
doi = {10.1002/tea.21089},
issn = {00224308},
year = {2013},
date = {2013-01-01},
journal = {Journal of Research in Science Teaching},
volume = {50},
number = {7},
pages = {858-886},
keywords = {CLASS, CLEAR, VISUAL},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{zhang_learning_2013,
title = {Learning from Chemical Visualizations: Comparing Generation and Selection},
author = {Zhihui Helen Zhang and Marcia C Linn},
doi = {10.1080/09500693.2013.792971},
issn = {0950-0693},
year = {2013},
date = {2013-01-01},
journal = {International Journal of Science Education},
volume = {35},
number = {13},
pages = {2174-2197},
abstract = {Dynamic visualizations can make unseen phenomena such as chemical reactions visible but students need guidance to benefit from them. This study explores the value of generating drawings versus selecting among alternatives to guide students to learn chemical reactions from a dynamic visualization of hydrogen combustion as part of an online inquiry unit. In prior research, generation has been more successful than selection in helping students distinguish among ideas to learn complex topics. However, selecting among perplexing alternatives may motivate learners to distinguish among ideas they might otherwise neglect. To test the value of selection for helping students distinguish ideas, this study contrasted complex selection (involving normative as well as non-normative ideas identified in prior research) from typical selection (involving images from the visualization). Results showed that all conditions improved student understanding and that typical selection was less effective than generation while complex selection was as successful as generation. In both generation and complex selection students revisited the visualization while learning, whereas revisiting was rare in typical selection. These results support the idea that distinguishing among common non-normative ideas is more valuable than distinguishing among images from the visualization. In addition, for students with low prior knowledge, both generation and complex selection had some advantages. Overall, the results suggest that students learning from complex visualizations could benefit from a combination of complex selection and generation.},
keywords = {VISUAL},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{donnelly_consuming_2013,
title = {Consuming and Creating: Early-Adopting Science Teachers' Perceptions and Use of a Wiki to Support Professional Development - ScienceDirect},
author = {D F Donnelly and S Boniface},
year = {2013},
date = {2013-01-01},
journal = {Computers & Education},
volume = {68},
pages = {9},
keywords = {CLASS},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{donnelly_enhancing_2013,
title = {Enhancing the Student Experiment Experience: Visible Scientific Inquiry Through a Virtual Chemistry Laboratory},
author = {Dermot Donnelly and John O'Reilly and Oliver McGarr},
doi = {10.1007/s11165-012-9322-1},
issn = {0157-244X, 1573-1898},
year = {2013},
date = {2013-01-01},
journal = {Research in Science Education},
volume = {43},
number = {4},
pages = {1571-1592},
abstract = {Practical work is often noted as a core reason many students take on science in secondary schools (high schools). However, there are inherent difficulties associated with classroom practical work that militate against scientific inquiry, an approach espoused by many science educators. The use of interactive simulations to facilitate student inquiry has emerged as a complement to practical work. This study presents case studies of four science teachers using a virtual chemistry laboratory (VCL) with their students in an explicitly guided inquiry manner. Research tools included the use of the Inquiry Science Implementation Scale in a `talk-aloud' manner, Reformed Teaching Observation Protocol for video observations, and teacher interviews. The findings suggest key aspects of practical work that hinder teachers in adequately supporting inquiry and highlight where a VCL can overcome many of these difficulties. The findings also indicate considerations in using the VCL in its own right.},
keywords = {CLASS},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{svihla_design-based_2012,
title = {A Design-Based Approach to Fostering Understanding of Global Climate Change},
author = {Vanessa Svihla and Marcia C Linn},
doi = {10.1080/09500693.2011.597453},
issn = {0950-0693, 1464-5289},
year = {2012},
date = {2012-03-01},
journal = {International Journal of Science Education},
volume = {34},
number = {5},
pages = {651-676},
keywords = {CLEAR},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{varma_using_2012,
title = {Using Interactive Technology to Support Students' Understanding of the Greenhouse Effect and Global Warming},
author = {Keisha Varma and Marcia C Linn},
doi = {10.1007/s10956-011-9337-9},
issn = {1059-0145, 1573-1839},
year = {2012},
date = {2012-01-01},
journal = {Journal of Science Education and Technology},
volume = {21},
number = {4},
pages = {453-464},
keywords = {CLEAR, VISUAL},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{ryoo_can_2012,
title = {Can Dynamic Visualizations Improve Middle School Students' Understanding of Energy in Photosynthesis?},
author = {Kihyun Ryoo and Marcia C Linn},
doi = {10.1002/tea.21003},
issn = {1098-2736},
year = {2012},
date = {2012-01-01},
journal = {Journal of Research in Science Teaching},
volume = {49},
number = {2},
pages = {218-243},
abstract = {Dynamic visualizations have the potential to make abstract scientific phenomena more accessible and visible to students, but they can also be confusing and difficult to comprehend. This research investigates how dynamic visualizations, compared to static illustrations, can support middle school students in developing an integrated understanding of energy in photosynthesis. Two hundred 7th-grade students were randomly assigned to either a dynamic or a static condition and completed a web-based inquiry unit that encourages students to make connections among energy concepts in photosynthesis. While working on the inquiry unit, students in the dynamic condition interacted with a dynamic visualization of energy transformation, whereas students in the static condition interacted with a series of static illustrations of the same concept. The results showed that students in both conditions added new, scientific ideas about energy transformation and developed a more coherent understanding of energy in photosynthesis. However, when comparing the two conditions, we found a significant advantage of dynamic visualization over static illustrations. Students in the dynamic condition were significantly more successful in articulating the process of energy transformation in the context of chemical reactions during photosynthesis. Students in the dynamic condition also demonstrated a more integrated understanding of energy in photosynthesis by linking their ideas about energy transformation to other energy ideas and observable phenomena of photosynthesis than those students in the static condition. This study, consistent with other research, shows that dynamic visualizations can more effectively improve students' understanding of abstract concepts of molecular processes than static illustrations. The results of this study also suggest that with appropriate instructional support, such as making predictions and distinguishing among ideas, both dynamic visualizations and static illustrations can benefit students. This study underscores the importance of curriculum design in ensuring that dynamic visualizations add value to science instructional materials. textcopyright 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Res Sci Teach 49: 218\textendash243, 2012},
keywords = {CLEAR, VISUAL},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{tissenbaum_co-designing_2012,
title = {Co-Designing Collaborative Smart Classroom Curriculum for Secondary School Science},
author = {Mike Tissenbaum and Michelle Liu and James. D Slotta},
year = {2012},
date = {2012-01-01},
journal = {Journal of Universal Computer Science},
volume = {18},
number = {3},
pages = {327-352},
abstract = {This paper introduces a series of iterative designs that investigate how the aggregation and visualization of student-contributed work can support collaborative problem solving in the domain of physics. We investigate how new technologies can enable students to contribute to a shared knowledge base, working across contexts: in class, at home, and in a specialized "smart classroom" environment. We explore how student data can be provided to the teacher before class, in support of planning the next day's lesson, and during class, to help the teacher orchestrate class activities and respond to student needs. Our work builds upon the research tradition of knowledge communities and inquiry learning to inform its design of materials and activities that support productive collaborative interactions for learners. We are also guided by the recent literature on scripting and orchestration to define curricular activities that bridge home and school environments, leveraging a digital platform that includes Web 2.0 features to guide structured collaborations. This paper reports on a design-based research program in which the development of the curriculum and technology platform is informed by successive cycles of design, enactment, analysis, and re-design. The paper will review our efforts through three successive design cycles, exploring the evolution of our own "smart classroom curriculum" for high school physics. For each iteration, we present our design goals, the resulting curriculum and technology, the student learning outcomes, and our evaluation that informs the next iteration. We end with a description of our current design, and discuss the goals and directions of our future efforts.},
keywords = {VISUAL},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{chen_visualizing_2012,
title = {Visualizing Earth and Explaining Seasons},
author = {Jennifer King Chen and Stephen Bannasch and Cynthia McIntyre},
year = {2012},
date = {2012-01-01},
journal = {@Concord},
volume = {16},
pages = {12-13},
abstract = {The first person to walk on the surface of the moon, Neil Armstrong viewed our planet as a floating globe in space. He is one of only a dozen who have had the opportunity to view Earth from its orbiting satellite. Photographs from Apollo 11 (Figure 1) give a glimpse of that experience, but what's it},
keywords = {VISUAL},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{clark_bilingual_2012,
title = {Bilingual Language Supports in Online Science Inquiry Environments},
author = {Douglas B Clark and Stephanie Touchman and Mario {Martinez-Garza} and Frank {Ramirez-Marin} and Tina Skjerping Drews},
doi = {10.1016/j.compedu.2011.11.019},
issn = {0360-1315},
year = {2012},
date = {2012-01-01},
journal = {Computers & Education},
volume = {58},
number = {4},
pages = {1207-1224},
abstract = {Research over the past fifteen years has investigated and developed online science inquiry environments to support students engaging in authentic scientific inquiry practices. This research has focused on developing activity structures and tools to scaffold students in engaging in different aspects of these practices, but relatively little of this research has explored linguistic supports for language minority students studying science in their non-native language. These students are simultaneously learning science and the surrounding academic language in their second language. This study investigates the potential value of providing 8th grade Spanish-speaking English language learners access to content and supports in both English and Spanish as opposed to an English-only format in an online science inquiry environment. Learning outcomes are compared between the two conditions on an immediate post-test in English, a delayed post-test in English, a delayed post-test in Spanish, and a written essay in English in the form of a letter to the governor. The outcomes suggest significant benefits for providing ELL students with access to content and supports in both English and Spanish as opposed to the English-only format. The findings of this study carry important policy implications in light of the growing English-only political movements in the United States and similar political movements in other countries. (Contains 3 tables and 9 figures.)},
keywords = {CLEAR, VISUAL},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{linn_open-source_2012,
title = {Open-Source Online Science Inquiry Materials: Building a Community},
author = {M C Linn and Libby F Gerard and M E Sato},
year = {2012},
date = {2012-01-01},
journal = {Revista Contrapontos},
volume = {12},
pages = {7},
keywords = {CLASS, CLEAR, VISUAL},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{zertuche_how_2012,
title = {How Do Openers Contribute to Student Learning? | International Electronic Journal of Elementary Education},
author = {Amber Zertuche and Libby Gerard and Marcia C Linn},
year = {2012},
date = {2012-01-01},
journal = {International Electronic Journal of Elementary Education},
volume = {5},
number = {1},
pages = {79-92},
keywords = {CLASS},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{gerard_professional_2011,
title = {Professional Development for Technology-Enhanced Inquiry Science},
author = {L F Gerard and K Varma and S B Corliss and M C Linn},
doi = {10.3102/0034654311415121},
issn = {0034-6543, 1935-1046},
year = {2011},
date = {2011-09-01},
journal = {Review of Educational Research},
volume = {81},
number = {3},
pages = {408-448},
keywords = {CLEAR},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{linn_off-shoring_2011,
title = {Off-Shoring Critical Thinking},
author = {Marcia C Linn},
year = {2011},
date = {2011-06-01},
journal = {San Francisco Chronicle},
abstract = {Nations seeking to compete for well-paying jobs in research, development and manufacturing are now adding proven critical thinking activities developed in America to their science courses. While American teachers are cutting back on experimentation, leaders in China, Taiwan, Korea, Norway and other countries are clamoring to use activities such as those found in the online, open source Web-based Inquiry Science Environment unit developed at UC Berkeley ( www.wise.berkeley.edu). Rather than memorizing the parts of an atom, students could learn and apply ideas about atoms while studying a unit on hydrogen fuel-cell cars. Students could use visualizations of chemical reactions to investigate the trade-offs between gasoline-powered and hydrogen-fuel-cell-powered cars and buses. [...] students prefer investigating scientific visualizations to textbooks and report that visualizations allow them to see how science works and to test their ideas.},
keywords = {VISUAL},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{chiu_knowledge_2011,
title = {Knowledge Integration and Wise Engineering},
author = {Jennifer Chiu and M Linn},
doi = {10.7771/2157-9288.1026},
issn = {2157-9288},
year = {2011},
date = {2011-04-01},
journal = {Journal of Pre-College Engineering Education Research (J-PEER)},
volume = {1},
number = {1},
keywords = {CLEAR, MODELS, VISUAL},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{lee_validating_2011,
title = {Validating Measurement of Knowledge Integration in Science Using Multiple-Choice and Explanation Items},
author = {Hee-Sun Lee and Ou Lydia Liu and Marcia C Linn},
issn = {0895-7347},
year = {2011},
date = {2011-01-01},
journal = {Applied Measurement in Education},
volume = {24},
number = {2},
pages = {115-136},
abstract = {This study explores measurement of a construct called knowledge integration in science using multiple-choice and explanation items. We use construct and instructional validity evidence to examine the role multiple-choice and explanation items plays in measuring students' knowledge integration ability. For construct validity, we analyze item properties such as alignment, discrimination, and target range on the knowledge integration scale using a Rasch Partial Credit Model analysis. For instructional validity, we test the sensitivity of multiple-choice and explanation items to knowledge integration instruction using a cohort comparison design. Results show that (1) one third of correct multiple-choice responses are aligned with higher levels of knowledge integration while three quarters of incorrect multiple-choice responses are aligned with lower levels of knowledge integration, (2) explanation items discriminate between high and low knowledge integration ability students much more effectively than multiple-choice items, (3) explanation items measure a wider range of knowledge integration levels than multiple-choice items, and (4) explanation items are more sensitive to knowledge integration instruction than multiple-choice items. (Contains 3 tables and 4 figures.)},
keywords = {CLEAR, MODELS, VISUAL},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{shen_technologyenhanced_2011,
title = {A Technology-Enhanced Unit of Modeling Static Electricity: Integrating Scientific Explanations and Everyday Observations},
author = {Ji Shen and Marcia C Linn},
doi = {10.1080/09500693.2010.514012},
issn = {0950-0693},
year = {2011},
date = {2011-01-01},
journal = {International Journal of Science Education},
volume = {33},
number = {12},
pages = {1597-1623},
abstract = {What trajectories do students follow as they connect their observations of electrostatic phenomena to atomic-level visualizations? We designed an electrostatics unit, using the knowledge integration framework to help students link observations and scientific ideas. We analyze how learners integrate ideas about charges, charged particles, energy, and observable events. We compare learning enactments in a typical school and a magnet school in the USA. We use pre-tests, post-tests, embedded notes, and delayed post-tests to capture the trajectories of students' knowledge integration. We analyze how visualizations help students grapple with abstract electrostatics concepts such as induction. We find that overall students gain more sophisticated ideas. They can interpret dynamic, interactive visualizations, and connect charge- and particle-based explanations to interpret observable events. Students continue to have difficulty in applying the energy-based explanation.},
keywords = {CLEAR, VISUAL},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{zhang_can_2011,
title = {Can Generating Representations Enhance Learning with Dynamic Visualizations?},
author = {Zhihui Helen Zhang and Marcia C Linn},
doi = {10.1002/tea.20443},
issn = {1098-2736},
year = {2011},
date = {2011-01-01},
journal = {Journal of Research in Science Teaching},
volume = {48},
number = {10},
pages = {1177-1198},
abstract = {This study explores the impact of asking middle school students to generate drawings of their ideas about chemical reactions on integrated understanding. Students explored atomic interactions during hydrogen combustion using a dynamic visualization. The generation group drew their ideas about how the reaction takes place at the molecular level. The interaction group conducted multiple experiments with the visualization by varying the amount of energy provided to ignite the reaction. The generation group integrated more ideas about chemical reactions and made more precise interpretations of the visualization than the interaction group. Embedded assessments show that generation motivated students to interpret the visualization carefully and led to more productive explanations about ideas represented in the dynamic visualization. In contrast, the interaction group was less successful in linking the visualization to underlying concepts and observable phenomena and wrote less detailed explanations. The study suggests that drawing is a promising way to help students interpret complex visualizations and integrate information. textcopyright 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Res Sci Teach 48: 1177\textendash1198, 2011},
keywords = {CLEAR, VISUAL},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{mcelhaney_investigations_2011,
title = {Investigations of a Complex, Realistic Task: Intentional, Unsystematic, and Exhaustive Experimenters},
author = {Kevin W McElhaney and Marcia C Linn},
doi = {10.1002/tea.20423},
issn = {1098-2736},
year = {2011},
date = {2011-01-01},
journal = {Journal of Research in Science Teaching},
volume = {48},
number = {7},
pages = {745-770},
abstract = {This study examines how students' experimentation with a virtual environment contributes to their understanding of a complex, realistic inquiry problem. We designed a week-long, technology-enhanced inquiry unit on car collisions. The unit uses new technologies to log students' experimentation choices. Physics students (n,=,148) in six diverse high schools studied the unit and responded to pretests, posttests, and embedded assessments. We scored students' experimentation using four methods: total number of trials, variability of variable choices, propensity to vary one variable at a time, and coherence between investigation goals and experimentation methods. Students made moderate, significant overall pretest to posttest gains on physics understanding. Coherence was a strong predictor of learning, controlling for pretest scores and the other experimentation measures. We identify three categories of experimenters (intentional, unsystematic, and exhaustive) and illustrate these categories with examples. The findings suggest that students must combine disciplinary knowledge of the investigation with intentional investigation of the inquiry questions in order to understand the nature of the variables. Mechanically executing well-established experimentation procedures (such as varying one variable at a time or comprehensively exploring the experimentation space) is less likely to lead students to valuable insights about complex tasks. Our proposed categories extend and refine previous efforts to categorize experimenters by linking scientific procedures with understanding of the science discipline. textcopyright 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Res Sci Teach 48: 745\textendash770, 2011},
keywords = {VISUAL},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{linn_combining_2011,
title = {Combining Learning and Assessment to Improve Science Education},
author = {Marcia C Linn and Jennifer Chiu},
issn = {2161-4210},
year = {2011},
date = {2011-01-01},
journal = {Research & Practice in Assessment},
volume = {6},
pages = {5-14},
abstract = {High-stakes tests take time away from valuable learning activities, narrow the focus of instruction, and imply that science involves memorizing details rather than understanding the natural world. Current tests lead precollege instructors to postpone science inquiry activities until after the last standardized test is completed--often during the last week of school. Students spend countless hours practicing and taking multiple-choice tests that have little educational value. Learning tests that help students understand science and measure progress at the same time are needed. This article discusses the following topics regarding science education: (1) Learning Test Goals; (2) Teaching and Assessing Lifelong Learning; (3) Visualizations and Assessment; (4) Teaching and Assessing with Concept Maps; (5) Essay Questions, Learning, and Assessment; and (6) Improving Assessment in Lecture Classes. Valuable classroom time can be reclaimed by using online learning environments that incorporate learning tests to measure lifelong learning skills. Think about what would happen if scientists spent time memorizing new facts rather than investigating compelling problems. A focus on lifelong learning to the classroom needs to be restored to retain a competitive advantage in science.},
keywords = {VISUAL},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{liu_investigation_2011,
title = {An Investigation of Explanation Multiple-Choice Items in Science Assessment},
author = {Ou Lydia Liu and Hee-Sun Lee and Marcia C Linn},
doi = {10.1080/10627197.2011.611702},
issn = {1062-7197},
year = {2011},
date = {2011-01-01},
journal = {Educational Assessment},
volume = {16},
number = {3},
pages = {164-184},
abstract = {Both multiple-choice and constructed-response items have known advantages and disadvantages in measuring scientific inquiry. In this article we explore the function of explanation multiple-choice (EMC) items and examine how EMC items differ from traditional multiple-choice and constructed-response items in measuring scientific reasoning. A group of 794 middle school students was randomly assigned to answer either constructed-response or EMC items following regular multiple-choice items. By applying a Rasch partial-credit analysis, we found that there is a consistent alignment between the EMC and multiple-choice items. Also, the EMC items are easier than the constructed-response items but are harder than most of the multiple-choice items. We discuss the potential value of the EMC items as a learning and diagnostic tool.},
keywords = {CLEAR, VISUAL},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{sampson_comparison_2011,
title = {A Comparison of the Collaborative Scientific Argumentation Practices of Two High and Two Low Performing Groups},
author = {Victor Sampson and Douglas B Clark},
doi = {10.1007/s11165-009-9146-9},
issn = {0157-244X, 1573-1898},
year = {2011},
date = {2011-01-01},
journal = {Research in Science Education},
volume = {41},
number = {1},
pages = {63-97},
abstract = {This qualitative study examines the interactions between individuals, ideas, and materials as two high and two low performing groups of students engaged in a process of collaborative scientific argumentation. To engage students in collaborative scientific argumentation the students were randomly assigned to small groups of three students each. Each triad was asked to critique six alternative explanations for a discrepant event and to produce a single written argument justifying the explanation they felt was most valid or acceptable. The two higher performing triads produced arguments that included a sufficient and accurate explanation that was well supported with appropriate evidence and reasoning while the two lower performing triads produced arguments that included an inaccurate explanation supported by inappropriate justification. A verbal analysis of the interactive processes that took place within these four triads identified five distinct differences in the ways these triads engaged in collaborative scientific argumentation that seemed to promote or constrain the development of high quality written arguments. These differences include (1) the number of unique ideas introduced into the conversation, (2) how individuals responded to these ideas, (3) how often individuals challenged ideas when discussing them, (4) the criteria individuals used to distinguish between ideas, and (5) how group members used the available corpus of data. The conclusions and implications of this study include recommendations for the design and revision of curriculum, the development of new instructional models and technology-enhanced learning environments, and areas for future research.},
keywords = {CLEAR, VISUAL},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{kali_teaching_2011,
title = {Teaching to Design Educational Technologies},
author = {Yael Kali and Tamar {Ronen-Fuhrmann}},
doi = {10.1504/IJLT.2011.040147},
issn = {1477-8386},
year = {2011},
date = {2011-01-01},
journal = {International Journal of Learning Technology},
volume = {6},
number = {1},
pages = {4-23},
abstract = {Finding ways to support novice educational technology designers is of high importance in many design fields. In this research we examined three courses in which graduate students learned to design technology-based curriculum modules. The courses were based on a teaching model developed in a design-based research methodology with four iterations. The model integrates the openness of a studio approach, with the structure of a well-known instructional systems-design process. It also takes advantage of experts' design knowledge embedded in a database of design principles. Qualitative data was used to evaluate the affordances and challenges of progressive versions of the teaching model. A generalised model for teaching educational technology design was derived, in which the following constructs are intertwined: astructuring the design processbbuilding on accessible repositories of expert design knowledgecenabling dialogic learning.},
keywords = {CLEAR, VISUAL},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{svihla_connecting_2011,
title = {Connecting Energy Across the Curriculum},
author = {Vanessa Svihla and K Ryoo and M C Linn and Chad Dorsey},
year = {2011},
date = {2011-01-01},
journal = {@Concord},
volume = {15},
pages = {12-13},
abstract = {The importance of energy and energy use is evident in all corners of our lives. From the food we eat to the cars we drive, energy plays a central role in our political and social lives. Similarly, energy is one of the most central ideas in science. The flow and transformation of energy ties together},
keywords = {CLEAR},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{linn_designing_2010-1,
title = {Designing Science Instruction Using the Web-Based Inquiry Science Environment (WISE)},
author = {Marcia C Linn and James. D Slotta and Hiroki Terashima and Elisa Stone and Jacquie Madhok},
year = {2010},
date = {2010-12-01},
journal = {Asia-Pacific Forum on Science Learning and Teaching},
volume = {11},
number = {2},
keywords = {CLEAR},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{liu_investigation_2010,
title = {An Investigation of Teacher Impact on Student Inquiry Science Performance Using a Hierarchical Linear Model},
author = {Ou Lydia Liu and Hee-Sun Lee and Marcia C Linn},
doi = {10.1002/tea.20372},
issn = {1098-2736},
year = {2010},
date = {2010-09-01},
journal = {Journal of Research in Science Teaching},
volume = {47},
number = {7},
pages = {807-819},
abstract = {Teachers play a central role in inquiry science classrooms. In this study, we investigate how seven teacher variables (i.e., gender, experience, perceived importance of inquiry and traditional teaching, workshop attendance, partner teacher, use of technology) affect student knowledge integration understanding of science topics drawing on previous research. Using a two-level hierarchical linear model, we analyze year-end knowledge integration performance of 4,513 students taught by 40 teachers across five states. Results indicate that students of teachers who value inquiry teaching strategies have significantly higher levels of knowledge integration understanding than those of teachers who believe in traditional teaching methods. In addition, workshop attendance and having a partner teacher teaching the same unit in the same school also have a positive impact on students' knowledge integration levels. The results underscore the importance of professional development and collegial support in enhancing student success in inquiry science. textcopyright 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Res Sci Teach 47:807\textendash819, 2010},
keywords = {CLEAR, VISUAL},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{lee_assessing_2010,
title = {Assessing Learning Progression of Energy Concepts across Middle School Grades: The Knowledge Integration Perspective},
author = {Hee-Sun Lee and Ou Lydia Liu},
doi = {10.1002/sce.20382},
issn = {1098-237X},
year = {2010},
date = {2010-07-01},
journal = {Science Education},
volume = {94},
number = {4},
pages = {665-688},
abstract = {We use a construct-based assessment approach to measure learning progression of energy concepts across physical, life, and earth science contexts in middle school grades. We model the knowledge integration construct in six levels in terms of the numbers of ideas and links used in student-generated explanations. For this study, we selected 10 items addressing energy source, transformation, and conservation from published standardized tests and administered them to a status quo sample of 2688 middle school students taught by 29 teachers in 12 schools across 5 states. Results based on a Rasch partial credit model analysis indicate that conservation items are associated with the highest knowledge integration levels, followed by transformation and source items. Comparisons across three middle school grades and across physical, life, and earth science contexts reveal that the mean knowledge integration level of eighth-grade students is significantly higher than that of sixth- or seventh-grade students, and that the mean knowledge integration level of students who took a physical science course is significantly higher than that of students who took a life or earth science course. We discuss implications for research on learning progressions. textcopyright 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed94:665\textendash688, 2010},
keywords = {CLEAR, TELS},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{ermeling_tracing_2010,
title = {Tracing the Effects of Teacher Inquiry on Classroom Practice},
author = {Bradley A Ermeling},
doi = {10.1016/j.tate.2009.02.019},
issn = {0742-051X},
year = {2010},
date = {2010-04-01},
journal = {Teaching and Teacher Education},
volume = {26},
number = {3},
pages = {377-388},
abstract = {Videotape and participant observation were used to document an American high school teacher workgroup's experience with collaborative teacher inquiry and to monitor changes in practice through two cycles of instructional planning, classroom implementation, and reflective analysis. Detectable changes in practice were observed, including a substantial improvement for two of the four teachers in fidelity of implementation of an instructional innovation. Results support claim that meaningful instructional changes are more likely when teachers work in job-alike teams, are led by trained leaders, use inquiry-focused protocols, and have stable settings in which to engage in the continuous improvement of instruction.},
keywords = {VISUAL},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{shen_getting_2010,
title = {Getting from Here to There: The Roles of Policy Makers and Principals in Increasing Science Teacher Quality},
author = {Ji Shen and Libby Gerard and Jane Bowyer},
doi = {10.1007/s10972-009-9180-5},
issn = {1046-560X, 1573-1847},
year = {2010},
date = {2010-04-01},
journal = {Journal of Science Teacher Education},
volume = {21},
number = {3},
pages = {283-307},
abstract = {In this study we investigate how federal and state policy makers, and school principals are working to improve science teacher quality. Interviews, focused discussions, and policy documents serve as the primary data source. Findings suggest that both policy makers and principals prioritize increasing incentives for teachers entering the science teaching profession, providing professional development for new teachers, and using students' data to evaluate and improve instruction. Differences between the two leadership groups emerged in terms of the grain size and practicality of their concerns. Our findings indicate that the complexity of educational challenges to improve science teacher quality call for the co-construction of policy by multiple constituent groups including school principals, federal and state policy makers, and science education researchers.},
keywords = {CLEAR, MODELS, TELS},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{gerard_principal_2010,
title = {A Principal Community: Building School Leadership for Technology-Enhanced Science Curriculum Reform},
author = {Libby F Gerard and J B Bowyer and M C Linn},
year = {2010},
date = {2010-01-01},
journal = {Journal of School Leadership},
volume = {20},
pages = {145-183},
keywords = {MODELS, VISUAL},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{lee_how_2010,
title = {How Do Technology-Enhanced Inquiry Science Units Impact Classroom Learning?},
author = {Hee-Sun Lee and Marcia C Linn and Keisha Varma and Ou Lydia Liu},
doi = {10.1002/tea.20304},
issn = {1098-2736},
year = {2010},
date = {2010-01-01},
journal = {Journal of Research in Science Teaching},
volume = {47},
number = {1},
pages = {71-90},
abstract = {We investigated how student understanding of complex science topics was impacted when 27 teachers switched from typical to inquiry instruction in a delayed cohort comparison design study. For the same set of science topics, the teachers used typical methods of instruction in the first year and online, visualization rich inquiry units in the second year. Both cohorts of students were tested on knowledge integration at the end of both school years. We obtained students' knowledge integration estimates by applying an Item Response Theory analysis based on a Rasch Partial Credit Model. We used a mixed effects analysis of variance to investigate effects related to inquiry instruction, teaching context, and science course. We found significant main effects of inquiry instruction and teaching context as well as significant interaction effects between inquiry instruction and science course and between inquiry instruction and teaching context on student knowledge integration. We triangulate these findings with teacher surveys, interview transcripts and project records to explore potential factors associated with successful implementation of inquiry instruction. textcopyright 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Res Sci Teach 47: 71\textendash90, 2010},
keywords = {CLEAR, MODELS, TELS, VISUAL},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{liu_multifaceted_2010,
title = {Multifaceted Assessment of Inquiry-Based Science Learning},
author = {Ou Lydia Liu and Hee-Sun Lee and Marcia C Linn},
doi = {10.1080/10627197.2010.491067},
issn = {1062-7197},
year = {2010},
date = {2010-01-01},
journal = {Educational Assessment},
volume = {15},
number = {2},
pages = {69-86},
abstract = {To improve student science achievement in the United States we need inquiry-based instruction that promotes coherent understanding and assessments that are aligned with the instruction. Instead, current textbooks often offer fragmented ideas and most assessments only tap recall of details. In this study we implemented 10 inquiry-based science units that promote knowledge integration and developed assessments that measure student knowledge integration abilities. To measure student learning outcomes, we designed a science assessment consisting of both proximal items that are related to the units and distal items that are published from standardized tests (e.g., Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study). We compared the psychometric properties and instructional sensitivity of the proximal and distal items. To unveil the context of learning, we examined how student, class, and teacher characteristics affect student inquiry science learning. Several teacher-level characteristics including professional development showed a positive impact on science performance.},
keywords = {CLEAR, MODELS, TELS, VISUAL},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{shen_nurturing_2010,
title = {Nurturing Students' Critical Knowledge Using Technology-Enhanced Scaffolding Strategies in Science Education},
author = {Ji Shen},
doi = {10.1007/s10956-009-9183-1},
issn = {1059-0145, 1573-1839},
year = {2010},
date = {2010-01-01},
journal = {Journal of Science Education and Technology},
volume = {19},
number = {1},
pages = {1-12},
abstract = {Critique is central to the development of scientific knowledge. From a cognitive perspective, critique can be used to enhance understanding. From a social perspective, critique serves to maintain the standards of a professional field. In science education, it is of tremendous value to diagnose and nurture students' critical knowledge. How students develop and apply criteria for critique, however, remains unclear. What factors influence students' performance of critique, and how can educators incorporate technology-enhanced scaffolding strategies to help diagnose and nurture students' critical knowledge? In this paper, I define critical knowledge as the criteria people use to evaluate other knowledge, the ability to use these criteria across contexts, and the reflective understanding of such processes. Building on existing literature, I develop a conceptual framework that describes the components and processes involved in a critique activity. Using this framework, I discuss the application of technology-enhanced scaffolding strategies to facilitate critique activities in science classrooms.},
keywords = {TELS},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{else-quest_cross-national_2010,
title = {Cross-National Patterns of Gender Differences in Mathematics: A Meta-Analysis},
author = {Nicole M {Else-Quest} and Janet Shibley Hyde and Marcia C Linn},
doi = {10.1037/a0018053},
issn = {1939-1455},
year = {2010},
date = {2010-01-01},
journal = {Psychological Bulletin},
volume = {136},
number = {1},
pages = {103-127},
abstract = {A gender gap in mathematics achievement persists in some nations but not in others. In light of the underrepresentation of women in careers in science, technology, mathematics, and engineering, increasing research attention is being devoted to understanding gender differences in mathematics achievement, attitudes, and affect. The gender stratification hypothesis maintains that such gender differences are closely related to cultural variations in opportunity structures for girls and women. We meta-analyzed 2 major international data sets, the 2003 Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study and the Programme for International Student Assessment, representing 493,495 students 14-16 years of age, to estimate the magnitude of gender differences in mathematics achievement, attitudes, and affect across 69 nations throughout the world. Consistent with the gender similarities hypothesis, all of the mean effect sizes in mathematics achievement were very small (d $<$ 0.15); however, national effect sizes showed considerable variability (ds = -0.42 to 0.40). Despite gender similarities in achievement, boys reported more positive math attitudes and affect (ds = 0.10 to 0.33); national effect sizes ranged from d = -0.61 to 0.89. In contrast to those of previous tests of the gender stratification hypothesis, our results point to specific domains of gender equity responsible for gender gaps in math. Gender equity in school enrollment, women's share of research jobs, and women's parliamentary representation were the most powerful predictors of cross-national variability in gender gaps in math. Results are situated within the context of existing research demonstrating apparently paradoxical effects of societal gender equity and highlight the significance of increasing girls' and women's agency cross-nationally.},
keywords = {CLEAR, MODELS, VISUAL},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{gerard_teacher_2010,
title = {Teacher Use of Evidence to Customize Inquiry Science Instruction},
author = {Libby F Gerard and Michele Spitulnik and Marcia C Linn},
doi = {10.1002/tea.20367},
issn = {1098-2736},
year = {2010},
date = {2010-01-01},
journal = {Journal of Research in Science Teaching},
volume = {47},
number = {9},
pages = {1037-1063},
abstract = {This study investigated how professional development featuring evidence-based customization of technology-enhanced curriculum projects can improve inquiry science teaching and student knowledge integration in earth science. Participants included three middle school sixth-grade teachers and their classes of students (N,=,787) for three consecutive years. Teachers used evidence from their student work to revise the curriculum projects and rethink their teaching strategies. Data were collected through teacher interviews, written reflections, classroom observations, curriculum artifacts, and student assessments. Results suggest that the detailed information about the learning activities of students provided by the assessments embedded in the online curriculum motivated curricular and pedagogical customizations that resulted in both teacher and student learning. Customizations initiated by teachers included revisions of embedded questions, additions of hands-on investigations, and modifications of teaching strategies. Student performance improved across the three cohorts of students with each year of instructional customization. Coupling evidence from student work with revisions of curriculum and instruction has promise for strengthening professional development and improving science learning. textcopyright 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Res Sci Teach 47: 1037\textendash1063, 2010},
keywords = {CLEAR, MODELS, VISUAL},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{linn_designing_2010,
title = {Designing Standards for Lifelong Science Learning},
author = {Marcia Linn},
doi = {10.1002/j.2168-9830.2010.tb01047.x},
year = {2010},
date = {2010-01-01},
journal = {Journal of Engineering Education},
volume = {99},
abstract = {Science technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) standards should enable students to become lifelong learners who can make sense of new STEM-related dilemmas as they arise. We need citizens who can manage an unexpected health problem, make informed decisions about new energy sources, and interpret persuasive messages about topics such as online privacy, antidepressants, cloning, nanoscience, and earthquake safety. This might entail learning a new discipline, searching the Internet, interviewing experts, or distinguishing among conflicting sets of results. To develop STEM standards that promote lifelong science learning, partnerships between natural science and engineering offer great promise. The upcoming International Conference in the Learning Sciences (ICLS) convened by the International Society for the Learning Sciences (ISLS) can help build a community of researchers to tackle these problems. The only area where we have been able to control this proliferation is in the weight ofthe textbooks. Those concerned with stress injuries to children have succeeded in curtailing the weight of textbooks\textemdashfor the moment. For example, in California, the following maximum weight standards are in effect for each student textbook in elementary and secondary school: textbullet Grades K-4: Three Pounds textbullet Grades 5-8: Four Pounds textbullet Grades 9\textemdash12: Five Pounds Of course, as states replace textbooks wath electronic materials even these minor constraints vvdU disappear. Publishers are already putting textbooks on electronic page turning devices\textemdashneglecting all the potential of more powerflil computers. Distressingly, efforts to pack tbe curriculum with more topics just deter students from participating in STEM courses and careers. Tbe stuffed curriculum offers students no chance to develop integrated, usenil understanding that they can build throughout their lives. To become lifelong learners, students need to use the science they learn to grapple with problems that they care about\textemdash starting with their first science class.},
keywords = {CLEAR, MODELS, TELS, VISUAL},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{liu_evaluating_2010,
title = {Evaluating Inquiry-Based Science Units Using a Hierarchical Linear Model},
author = {O L Liu and Hee-Sun Lee and M C Linn},
year = {2010},
date = {2010-01-01},
journal = {Educational Assessment},
volume = {15},
pages = {69-86},
keywords = {CLEAR, VISUAL},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{lindberg_new_2010,
title = {New Trends in Gender and Mathematics Performance: A Meta-Analysis},
author = {S M Lindberg and Janet Shibley Hyde and J L Peterson and M C Linn},
year = {2010},
date = {2010-01-01},
journal = {Psychological Bulletin},
volume = {136},
number = {6},
pages = {1123-1135},
abstract = {In this article, we use meta-analysis to analyze gender differences in recent studies of mathematics performance. First, we meta-analyzed data from 242 studies published between 1990 and 2007, representing the testing of 1,286,350 people. Overall},
keywords = {CLEAR, VISUAL},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{gerard_how_2010,
title = {How Does a Community of Principals Develop Leadership for Technology-Enhanced Science?},
author = {Libby F Gerard and J B Bowyer and M C Linn},
year = {2010},
date = {2010-01-01},
journal = {Journal of School Leadership},
volume = {20},
pages = {145-183},
keywords = {CLEAR, VISUAL},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{chang_impact_2010,
title = {The Impact of Designing and Evaluating Molecular Animations on How Well Middle School Students Understand the Particulate Nature of Matter},
author = {Hsin-Yi Chang and Chris Quintana and Joseph S Krajcik},
doi = {10.1002/sce.20352},
issn = {1098-237X},
year = {2010},
date = {2010-01-01},
journal = {Science Education},
volume = {94},
number = {1},
pages = {73-94},
abstract = {In this study, we investigated whether the understanding of the particulate nature of matter by students was improved by allowing them to design and evaluate molecular animations of chemical phenomena. We developed Chemation, a learner-centered animation tool, to allow seventh-grade students to construct flipbook-like simple animations to show molecular models and dynamic processes. Eight classes comprising 271 students were randomly assigned to three treatments in which students used Chemation to (1) design, interpret, and evaluate animations, (2) only design and interpret animations, or (3) only view and interpret teacher-made animations. We employed 2-factor analysis of covariance and calculated effect sizes to examine the impact of the three treatments on student posttest performances and on student-generated animations and interpretations during class. We used the pretest data as a covariate to reduce a potential bias related to students' prior knowledge on their learning outcomes. The results indicate that designing animations coupled with peer evaluation is effective at improving student learning with instructional animation. On the other hand, the efficacy of allowing students to only design animations without peer evaluation is questionable compared with allowing students to view animations. textcopyright 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed94:73\textendash94, 2010},
keywords = {CLEAR},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{kali_role_2009,
title = {The Role of Design-Principles in Designing Courses That Promote Collaborative Learning in Higher-Education},
author = {Yael Kali and Rachel {Levin-Peled} and Yehudit Judy Dori},
doi = {10.1016/j.chb.2009.01.006},
issn = {0747-5632},
year = {2009},
date = {2009-09-01},
journal = {Computers in Human Behavior},
volume = {25},
number = {5},
pages = {1067-1078},
series = {Including the Special Issue: Design Patterns for Augmenting E-Learning Experiences},
abstract = {Design-patterns and design-principles represent two approaches, which elicit design knowledge from successful learning environments and formulate it as design guidelines. The two approaches are fairly similar in their strategies, but differ in their research origins. This study stems from the design-principles approach, and explores how learning is affected by curriculum-materials designed according to two main design-principles: (a) engage learners in peer instruction, and (b) reuse student artifacts as resource for further learning. These principles were employed in three higher-education courses and examined with 385 students. Data analysis was conducted in two trajectories: In the ``bird's eye view'' trajectory we used a ``feature'' unit of analysis to illustrate how learning was supported by features designed according to the two design-principles in each of the courses. In the ``design-based research'' trajectory we focused on one feature, a web-based Jigsaw activity, in a philosophy of education course, and demonstrated how it was refined via three design iterations. Students were required to specialize in one of three philosophical perspectives, share knowledge with peers who specialized in other perspectives, and reuse the shared knowledge in new contexts. Outcomes indicated that the design in the first iteration did not sufficiently support student ability to apply the shared knowledge. Two additional design-principles were employed in the next iterations: (c) provide knowledge representation and organization tools, and (d) employ multiple social-activity structures. The importance of combining several design-principles for designing curricular materials is discussed in terms of Alexander's design-pattern language and his notion of referencing between design-patterns.},
keywords = {TELS},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{newcombe_psychologys_2009,
title = {Psychology's Role in Mathematics and Science Education},
author = {Nora S Newcombe and Nalini Ambady and Jacquelynne Eccles and Louis Gomez and David Klahr and Marcia Linn and Kevin Miller and Kelly Mix},
doi = {10.1037/a0014813},
issn = {1935-990X},
year = {2009},
date = {2009-09-01},
journal = {The American Psychologist},
volume = {64},
number = {6},
pages = {538-550},
abstract = {Improving mathematics and science education in the United States has been a matter of national concern for over half a century. Psychology has a vital role to play in this enterprise. In this article, the authors review the kinds of contributions that psychology can make in four areas: (a) early understanding of mathematics, (b) understanding of science, (c) social and motivational aspects of involvement in mathematics and science, and (d) assessment of learning in mathematics and science. They also examine challenges to psychology's playing a central and constructive role and make recommendations for overcoming those challenges.},
keywords = {CLEAR, MODELS, TELS, VISUAL},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{sampson_impact_2009,
title = {The Impact of Collaboration on the Outcomes of Scientific Argumentation},
author = {Victor Sampson and Douglas Clark},
doi = {10.1002/sce.20306},
issn = {1098-237X},
year = {2009},
date = {2009-05-01},
journal = {Science Education},
volume = {93},
number = {3},
pages = {448-484},
abstract = {This study examines three questions about the impact of collaboration during scientific argumentation. First, do groups craft better arguments than individuals? Second, to what degree do individuals adopt and internalize the arguments crafted by their group? Third, do individuals who work in groups learn more from their experiences than individuals who work on their own? To examine these questions, 168 high school chemistry students were randomly assigned, using a matched pair design to collaborative or individual argumentation conditions. Students in both treatment conditions first completed a task that required them to produce an argument articulating and justifying an explanation for a discrepant event. The students then completed mastery and transfer problems on their own. The results of this study indicate that (a) groups of students did not produce better arguments than students who worked alone, (b) a substantial proportion of the students adopted at least some elements of their group's argument, and (c) students from the collaborative condition demonstrated superior performance on the mastery and transfer problems. These observations indicate that collaboration was beneficial for individual learning but not for initial performance on the task. The study concludes with a discussion of these observations and recommendations for future research. textcopyright 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed93: 448\textendash484, 2009},
keywords = {CLEAR, TELS},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{ozdemir_knowledge_2009,
title = {Knowledge Structure Coherence in Turkish Students' Understanding of Force},
author = {Gokhan Ozdemir and Douglas Clark},
doi = {10.1002/tea.20290},
issn = {1098-2736},
year = {2009},
date = {2009-05-01},
journal = {Journal of Research in Science Teaching},
volume = {46},
number = {5},
pages = {570-596},
abstract = {This study investigates Turkish students' knowledge structure coherence in physics. In particular, this study investigates the conflicting findings reported in Ioannides and Vosniadou's [Ioannides and Vosniadou [2002] Cognitive Science Quarterly, 2, 5\textendash61] and diSessa, Gillespie, and Esterly's [diSessa et al. [2004] Cognitive Science, 28, 843\textendash900] studies about students' understandings of force. Ioannides and Vosniadou's study of four different age levels of students in Greece demonstrated broad consistency in students' understandings of force. diSessa and colleagues' quasi-replication in the United States demonstrated conflicting results supporting a more fragmented elemental perspective on students' knowledge structure coherence. The current study investigates these conflicting findings by studying students in a third country using the analytic methods from both studies to clarify the debate over knowledge structure coherence. The levels of consistency demonstrated by students in the current study are somewhat higher than the levels reported by diSessa, Gillespie, and Esterly according to both coding schemes, but are closer overall to the levels reported by diSessa, Gillespie, and Esterly than to the levels reported by Ioannides and Vosniadou. In addition, closer inspection of students' explanations suggests that students' explanations may code as consistent according to the coding schemes for a particular force meaning category but not actually represent a coherent understanding of that force meaning. These results therefore more closely support fragmented elemental perspectives on knowledge structure coherence. The results, however, demonstrate important systematicities in students' thinking and support the possibility that differences between the student populations in the countries of the original studies contributed to the differences in findings of the original studies. textcopyright 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Res Sci Teach 46: 570\textendash596, 2009},
keywords = {CLEAR},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{kali_design_2009,
title = {The Design Principles Database},
author = {Yael Kali and Rachel {Levin-Peled} and Meytal Hans and Tamar {Ronen-Fuhrmann}},
doi = {10.18848/1833-1874/CGP/v03i01/37587},
issn = {1833-1874, 2473-5736},
year = {2009},
date = {2009-01-01},
journal = {Design Principles and Practices: An International Journal\textemdashAnnual Review},
volume = {3},
number = {1},
pages = {55-66},
keywords = {TELS},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{shamir-inbal_teachers_2009,
title = {Teachers as Designers of Online Activities},
author = {Tamar {Shamir-Inbal} and Yael Kali},
doi = {10.18848/1833-1874/CGP/v03i01/37596},
issn = {1833-1874, 2473-5736},
year = {2009},
date = {2009-01-01},
journal = {Design Principles and Practices: An International Journal\textemdashAnnual Review},
volume = {3},
number = {1},
pages = {89-102},
keywords = {TELS},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{slotta_wise_2009,
title = {WISE Technology Lessons: Moving from a Local Proprietary System to a Global Open Source Framework},
author = {J D Slotta and Turadg Aleahmad},
year = {2009},
date = {2009-01-01},
journal = {Research and Practice in Technology Enhanced Learning},
volume = {4},
number = {2},
pages = {169-189},
keywords = {CLEAR, TELS, VISUAL},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{clark_initial_2009,
title = {Initial Structuring of Online Discussions to Improve Learning and Argumentation: Incorporating Students' Own Explanations as Seed Comments Versus an Augmented-Preset Approach to Seeding Discussions},
author = {Douglas B Clark and Cynthia M D\'{A}ngelo and Muhsin Menekse},
doi = {10.1007/s10956-009-9159-1},
issn = {1059-0145, 1573-1839},
year = {2009},
date = {2009-01-01},
journal = {Journal of Science Education and Technology},
volume = {18},
number = {4},
pages = {321-333},
abstract = {Collaboration scripts can facilitate argumentation in online settings by grouping students with other students who have expressed differing perspectives on a discussion topic. This general scripting approach is referred to as a ``conflict schema.'' Prior studies suggest that a specific conflict schema script known as personally-seeded discussion is more productive for students than a standard discussion format in terms of the structural quality of the resulting argumentation and participation within the discussions. The purpose of the current study involves comparing the personally-seeded script with a variant augmented-preset script to determine the relative contributions of components of the scripts in terms of (1) increasing personal engagement of the students versus optimizing of the starting seed-comments and (2) grouping students using the conflict schema approach versus random assignment of students to groups. The results suggest that engaging students in the exploration of a diverse set of preset discussion seed-comments coupled with a conflict schema approach leads to the highest gains in learning.},
keywords = {CLEAR},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{varma_targeted_2008,
title = {Targeted Support for Using Technology-Enhanced Science Inquiry Modules},
author = {Keisha Varma and Freda Husic and Marcia C Linn},
doi = {10.1007/s10956-008-9104-8},
issn = {1059-0145, 1573-1839},
year = {2008},
date = {2008-08-01},
journal = {Journal of Science Education and Technology},
volume = {17},
number = {4},
pages = {341-356},
abstract = {Designing effective professional development experiences for technology-enhanced inquiry instruction is the goal of the Technology Enhanced Learning in Science (TELS) NSF funded Center for Learning and Teaching. In order to provide this type of support to a large number of teachers, we devised a targeted professional development approach. Participating teachers implemented short inquiry modules that featured interactive scientific visualizations. We collaborated with 16 schools in eight districts and five states. This paper reports the design, implementation, and refinement of the targeted approach. Findings from interview data show that teachers faced challenges that are often associated with enacting technology innovations in K-12 classrooms. The targeted professional development approach addressed the challenges and allowed teachers to successfully implement the modules in their classrooms. The interview data clarify teachers' perspectives on how using technology impacted their teaching practices and their ideas about student learning. This work contributes to a growing body of literature that identifies and addresses barriers to integrating technology into K-12 classrooms.},
keywords = {CLEAR, MODELS},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{liu_assessing_2008,
title = {Assessing Knowledge Integration in Science: Construct, Measures, and Evidence},
author = {Ou Lydia Liu and Hee-Sun Lee and Carolyn Hofstetter and Marcia C Linn},
doi = {10.1080/10627190801968224},
issn = {1062-7197},
year = {2008},
date = {2008-04-01},
journal = {Educational Assessment},
volume = {13},
number = {1},
pages = {33-55},
abstract = {In response to the demand for sound science assessments, this article presents the development of a latent construct called knowledge integration as an effective measure of science inquiry. Knowledge integration assessments ask students to link, distinguish, evaluate, and organize their ideas about complex scientific topics. The article focuses on assessment topics commonly taught in 6th- through 12th-grade classes. Items from both published standardized tests and previous knowledge integration research were examined in 6 subject-area tests. Results from Rasch partial credit analyses revealed that the tests exhibited satisfactory psychometric properties with respect to internal consistency, item fit, weighted likelihood estimates, discrimination, and differential item functioning. Compared with items coded using dichotomous scoring rubrics, those coded with the knowledge integration rubrics yielded significantly higher discrimination indexes. The knowledge integration assessment tasks, analyzed using knowledge integration scoring rubrics, demonstrate strong promise as effective measures of complex science reasoning in varied science domains.},
keywords = {CLEAR, MODELS, TELS},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{clark_assessing_2008,
title = {Assessing Dialogic Argumentation in Online Environments to Relate Structure, Grounds, and Conceptual Quality},
author = {Douglas B Clark and Victor Sampson},
doi = {10.1002/tea.20216},
issn = {1098-2736},
year = {2008},
date = {2008-03-01},
journal = {Journal of Research in Science Teaching},
volume = {45},
number = {3},
pages = {293-321},
abstract = {The national science standards, along with prominent researchers, call for increased focus on scientific argumentation in the classroom. Over the past decade, researchers have developed sophisticated online science learning environments to support these opportunities for scientific argumentation. Assessing the quality of dialogic argumentation, however, has proven challenging. Existing analytic frameworks assess dialogic argumentation in terms of the nature of students' discourse, formal argumentation structure, interactions, and epistemic forms of reasoning. Few frameworks, however, connect these assessments to conceptual quality. We present an analytic framework for assessing argumentation in online science learning environments that relates levels of opposition with discourse moves, use of grounds, and conceptual quality. We then apply the proposed framework to students' dialogic argumentation within a representative online science learning environment to investigate the framework's potential affordances as well as to assess issues of reliability and appropriateness. The results suggest that the framework offers significant affordances and that it also offers high interrater reliability for trained coders. The applicability of the framework for offline contexts and future extensions of the framework are discussed in light of these results. textcopyright 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Res Sci Teach 45: 293\textendash321, 2008},
keywords = {TELS},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{gerard_principal_2008,
title = {Principal Leadership for Technology-Enhanced Learning in Science},
author = {Libby F Gerard and Jane B Bowyer and Marcia C Linn},
doi = {10.1007/s10956-007-9070-6},
issn = {1059-0145, 1573-1839},
year = {2008},
date = {2008-02-01},
journal = {Journal of Science Education and Technology},
volume = {17},
number = {1},
pages = {1-18},
abstract = {Reforms such as technology-enhanced instruction require principal leadership. Yet, many principals report that they need help to guide implementation of science and technology reforms. We identify strategies for helping principals provide this leadership. A two-phase design is employed. In the first phase we elicit principals' varied ideas about the Technology-enhanced Learning in Science (TELS) curriculum materials being implemented by teachers in their schools, and in the second phase we engage principals in a leadership workshop designed based on the ideas they generated. Analysis uses an emergent coding scheme to categorize principals' ideas, and a knowledge integration framework to capture the development of these ideas. The analysis suggests that principals frame their thinking about the implementation of TELS in terms of: principal leadership, curriculum, educational policy, teacher learning, student outcomes and financial resources. They seek to improve their own knowledge to support this reform. The principals organize their ideas around individual school goals and current political issues. Principals prefer professional development activities that engage them in reviewing curricula and student work with other principals. Based on the analysis, this study offers guidelines for creating learning opportunities that enhance principals' leadership abilities in technology and science reform.},
keywords = {CLEAR, MODELS, TELS},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{higgins_supporting_2008,
title = {Supporting Teachers' Use of Technology in Science Instruction Through Professional Development: A Literature Review},
author = {Tara E Higgins and Michele W Spitulnik},
doi = {10.1007/s10956-008-9118-2},
issn = {1059-0145, 1573-1839},
year = {2008},
date = {2008-01-01},
journal = {Journal of Science Education and Technology},
volume = {17},
number = {5},
pages = {511-521},
abstract = {Professional development is critical in supporting teachers' use of technological tools in classrooms. This review of empirical research synthesizes the effective elements of professional development programs that support science teachers in learning about technology integration. Studies are examined that explore how professional development supports technology use within inquiry-based and traditional science instruction. Implications for future research are discussed in four areas: understanding and building on teachers' beliefs about science and technology; supporting teacher learning by supporting teachers' examination of students' work; using technology to support teacher communities and social networks; and sustaining teachers' learning beyond formal professional development programs.},
keywords = {MODELS},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{ronen-fuhrmann_helping_2008,
title = {Helping Education Students Understand Learning through Designing},
author = {Tamar {Ronen-Fuhrmann} and Yael Kali and Christopher Hoadley},
issn = {0013-1962},
year = {2008},
date = {2008-01-01},
journal = {Educational Technology},
volume = {48},
number = {2},
pages = {26-33},
abstract = {This article describes a course in which graduate students in education learn practical and theoretical aspects of educational design by creating technologies for learning. The course was built around three themes: \"{A}nalyzing technologies," in which students study state-of- the-art technologies and interview their designers; "design studio," in which students design their own technologies using an instructional model that was developed in this study; and "theory," in which literature is reviewed. Outcomes illustrate tensions between students' professed beliefs about learning and their actual design practices in four dimensions that characterize the technologies they designed: "Learner activity," "Collaboration," \"{A}utonomy," and "Content accessibility." Via peer-negotiating of these tensions in each of the course themes, students have developed their skills to design educational technologies and increased the coherence of their epistemological understanding of how people learn. (Contains 3 figures and 1 table.)},
keywords = {TELS},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{sampson_assessment_2008,
title = {Assessment of the Ways Students Generate Arguments in Science Education: Current Perspectives and Recommendations for Future Directions},
author = {Victor Sampson and Douglas B Clark},
doi = {10.1002/sce.20276},
issn = {1098-237X},
year = {2008},
date = {2008-01-01},
journal = {Science Education},
volume = {92},
number = {3},
pages = {447-472},
abstract = {Theoretical and empirical research on argument and argumentation in science education has intensified over the last two decades. The term ``argument'' in this review refers to the artifacts that a student or a group of students create when asked to articulate and justify claims or explanations whereas the term ``argumentation'' refers to the process of constructing these artifacts. The intent of this review is to provide an overview of several analytic frameworks that science educators use to assess and characterize the nature of or quality of scientific arguments in terms of three focal issues: structure, justification, and content. To highlight the foci, affordances, and constraints of these different analytic methods, the review of each framework includes an analysis of a sample argument. The review concludes with a synthesis of the three focal issues and outlines several recommendations for future work. Ultimately, this examination and synthesis of these frameworks in terms of how each conceptualizes argument structure, justification, and content is intended to provide a theoretical foundation for future research on argument in science education. textcopyright 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed92:447\textendash472, 2008},
keywords = {TELS},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{kali_designing_2008b,
title = {Designing Effective Visualizations for Elementary School Science},
author = {Yael Kali and Marcia C Linn},
doi = {10.1086/590525},
issn = {0013-5984},
year = {2008},
date = {2008-01-01},
journal = {The Elementary School Journal},
volume = {109},
number = {2},
pages = {181-198},
abstract = {Research has shown that technology-enhanced visualizations can improve inquiry learning in science when they are designed to support knowledge integration. Visualizations play an especially important role in supporting science learning at elementary and middle school levels because they can make unseen and complex processes visible. We identify 4 principles that can help designers and teachers incorporate visualizations into curriculum materials. These principles call for (a) reducing visual complexity to help learners recognize salient information, (b) scaffolding the process of generating explanations, (c) supporting student-initiated modeling of complex science, and (d) using multiple linked representations. We describe the principles, discuss patterns combining the principles, and give examples from several science disciplines.},
keywords = {CLEAR, MODELS, TELS, VISUAL},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{williams_making_2008,
title = {Making Mitosis Visible},
author = {Michelle Williams and Marcia C Linn and Gail P Hollowell},
issn = {0887-2376},
year = {2008},
date = {2008-01-01},
journal = {Science Scope},
volume = {31},
number = {7},
pages = {42-49},
abstract = {The Technology-Enhanced Learning in Science (TELS) center, a National Science Foundation-funded Center for Learning and Teaching, offers research-tested science modules for students in grades 6-12 (Linn et al. 2006). These free, online modules engage students in scientific inquiry through collaborative activities that include online investigations, interactive visualizations, and electronic discussions that allow teachers to access detailed accounts of student learning (Williams and Lynn 2003). This paper reports on how the Mitosis and Cell process module worked in a seventh-grade classroom in an urban school. (Contains 6 figures and 2 online resources.)},
keywords = {CLEAR, MODELS, TELS},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{hyde_gender_2008,
title = {Gender Similarities Characterize Math Performance},
author = {Janet S Hyde and Sara M Lindberg and Marcia C Linn and Amy B Ellis and Caroline C Williams},
doi = {10.1126/science.1160364},
issn = {0036-8075, 1095-9203},
year = {2008},
date = {2008-01-01},
journal = {Science},
volume = {321},
number = {5888},
pages = {494-495},
abstract = {Standardized tests in the U.S. indicate that girls now score just as well as boys in math.},
keywords = {CLEAR},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{clark_analytic_2007,
title = {Analytic Frameworks for Assessing Dialogic Argumentation in Online Learning Environments},
author = {Douglas B Clark and Victor Sampson and Armin Weinberger and Gijsbert Erkens},
doi = {10.1007/s10648-007-9050-7},
issn = {1040-726X, 1573-336X},
year = {2007},
date = {2007-09-01},
journal = {Educational Psychology Review},
volume = {19},
number = {3},
pages = {343-374},
abstract = {Over the last decade, researchers have developed sophisticated online learning environments to support students engaging in dialogic argumentation. This review examines five categories of analytic frameworks for measuring participant interactions within these environments focusing on (1) formal argumentation structure, (2) conceptual quality, (3) nature and function of contributions within the dialogue, (4) epistemic nature of reasoning, and (5) argumentation sequences and interaction patterns. Ultimately, the review underscores the diversity of theoretical perspectives represented within this research, the nature of dialogic interaction within these environments, the importance of clearly specifying theoretical and environmental commitments throughout the process of developing or adopting an analytic framework, and the role of analytic frameworks in the future development of online learning environments for argumentation.},
keywords = {TELS},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{weinberger_argumentative_2007,
title = {Argumentative Knowledge Construction in Online Learning Environments in and across Different Cultures: A Collaboration Script Perspective},
author = {A Weinberger and D B Clark and P H\"{A}kkinen and Y Tamura and F Fischer},
doi = {10.2304/rcie.2007.2.1.68},
issn = {1745-4999},
year = {2007},
date = {2007-03-01},
journal = {Research in Comparative and International Education},
volume = {2},
number = {1},
pages = {68-79},
abstract = {In recent years, information and communication technology has established new opportunities to participate in online learning environments around the globe. These opportunities include the dissemination of specific online learning environments as well as opportunities for learners to connect to online learning environments in distant locations. These dissemination and distance learning scenarios create potential challenges, however, in terms of the cultural differences in the internal scripts that learners of different cultures bring to these environments. This article considers these issues and challenges specifically for online environments focusing on argumentative knowledge construction. It discusses the importance of cross-cultural research in this area and proposes that a collaboration script perspective may prove extremely valuable for this research.},
keywords = {TELS},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{clark_personallyseeded_2007,
title = {Personally-Seeded Discussions to Scaffold Online Argumentation},
author = {Douglas B Clark and Victor D Sampson},
doi = {10.1080/09500690600560944},
issn = {0950-0693},
year = {2007},
date = {2007-02-01},
journal = {International Journal of Science Education},
volume = {29},
number = {3},
pages = {253-277},
abstract = {Research shows that scientific knowledge develops through a process of decision-making as well as discovery, and that argumentation is a genre of discourse crucial to the practice of science. Students should therefore be supported in understanding the scientific practices of dialectical and rhetorical argumentation as part of learning about scientific inquiry. This study focuses on supporting scientific argumentation in the classroom through a customized online discourse system. ``Personally-seeded discussions'' support learning and collaboration through an activity structure that elicits, shares, and contrasts students' own ideas to engage them in the discourse of science argumentation and inquiry. Students use an online interface to build principles to describe data they have collected. These principles become the seed comments for the online discussions. The software sorts students into discussion groups with students who have built different principles so that each discussion group can consider and critique multiple perspectives. This study explores the efficacy of this personally-seeded approach based on a coding scheme developed by Erduran, Osborne, and Simon that analyzes argument structure from a Toulmin perspective. As part of this exploration, the study outlines a method for parsing personally-seeded discussions into oppositional episodes for analysis, and discusses future directions for supporting argumentation in asynchronous online discussions.},
keywords = {TELS},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{ozdemir_overview_2007,
title = {An Overview of Conceptual Change Theories},
author = {G\"{o}khan \"{O}zdemir and Douglas B Clark},
doi = {10.12973/ejmste/75414},
issn = {1305-8215, 1305-8223},
year = {2007},
date = {2007-01-01},
journal = {Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education},
volume = {3},
number = {4},
pages = {351-361},
abstract = {Conceptual change researchers have made significant progress on two prominent but competing theoretical perspectives regarding knowledge structure coherence. These perspectives can be broadly characterized as (1) knowledge-as-theory perspectives and (2) knowledge-as-elements perspectives. These...},
keywords = {MODELS},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{sampson_incorporating_2007,
title = {Incorporating Scientific Argumentation into Inquiry-Based Activities with Online Personally Seeded Discussions},
author = {Victor Sampson and Douglas Clark},
issn = {0887-2376},
year = {2007},
date = {2007-01-01},
journal = {Science Scope},
volume = {30},
number = {6},
pages = {43-47},
abstract = {An explicit goal of the current reform movement in science education is to promote scientific literacy in the United States. One way to encourage scientific literacy is to help students develop a better understanding of science subject matter, that is, the declarative knowledge specifically associated with the physical, life, and earth sciences. However, in addition to helping students develop this type of knowledge, science education programs designed to promote true scientific literacy need to also help learners understand how this knowledge is generated, justified, and evaluated by scientists and how to use such knowledge to engage in inquiry in a way that reflects the practices of the scientific community. In this literature, inquiry is described as a knowledge-building process in which explanations are developed to make sense of data and then presented to a community of peers so they can be critiqued, debated, and revised. Thus, the ability to engage in argumentation in order to construct, justify, and evaluate scientific explanations is seen by many as an important component of scientific literacy. In order to foster productive argumentation in science classrooms, the authors have developed the personally seeded discussion (PSD). This article talks about PSD and its benefits. The PSD is an online asynchronous discussion forum that automatically sorts participants into small groups based on the nature of students' ideas. This tool is currently embedded into an online science project called "Thermodynamics: Probing Your Surroundings." (Contains 3 figures.)},
keywords = {TELS},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{horwitz_computers_2007,
title = {Computers and Clean Slates: Creating Interactive Learning Experiences},
author = {P Horwitz},
year = {2007},
date = {2007-01-01},
journal = {@Concord},
volume = {11},
number = {1},
keywords = {TELS},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{medina-jerez_science_2007,
title = {Science for ELL: Re-Thinking Our Approach},
author = {William {Medina-Jerez} and Douglas B Clark and A Medina and Frank {Ramirez-Marin}},
year = {2007},
date = {2007-01-01},
journal = {The Science Teacher},
volume = {74},
number = {3},
pages = {52-56},
keywords = {TELS},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{tinker_how_2007,
title = {How Do Students Learn from Models? Case Studies in Guided Inquiry},
author = {Robert Tinker},
year = {2007},
date = {2007-01-01},
journal = {@Concord},
volume = {11},
number = {1},
pages = {14},
keywords = {TELS},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{tinker_potholes_2007,
title = {Potholes in the Road to Proving Technology},
author = {Robert Tinker},
year = {2007},
date = {2007-01-01},
journal = {@Concord},
volume = {11},
number = {1},
pages = {2},
keywords = {TELS},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{tinker_science_2007,
title = {The Science of Atoms and Molecules},
author = {Robert Tinker},
year = {2007},
date = {2007-01-01},
journal = {@Concord},
volume = {11},
number = {1},
pages = {10},
keywords = {TELS},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{xie_roving_2007,
title = {Roving around Molecules},
author = {Qian Xie and Robert Tinker},
year = {2007},
date = {2007-01-01},
journal = {@Concord},
volume = {11},
number = {1},
pages = {8},
keywords = {TELS},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{zucker_probeware_2007,
title = {Probeware and the XO},
author = {A Zucker and A H Galvis and Robert Tinker},
year = {2007},
date = {2007-01-01},
journal = {@Concord},
volume = {11},
number = {1},
pages = {4},
keywords = {TELS},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{linn_differences_2007,
title = {Differences or Similarities in Mathematics? Finding an Integrating Focus},
author = {M C Linn and Cathy Kessel},
doi = {10.1111/j.1471-6402.2007.00375_2.x},
issn = {1471-6402},
year = {2007},
date = {2007-01-01},
journal = {Psychology of Women Quarterly},
volume = {31},
number = {3},
pages = {323-324},
keywords = {TELS},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{linn_why_2007,
title = {Why Aren't More Women in Science?},
author = {Marcia C Linn},
doi = {10.1126/science.1141569},
issn = {0036-8075},
year = {2007},
date = {2007-01-01},
journal = {Science},
volume = {317},
number = {5835},
pages = {199-200},
note = {WOS:000247968600023},
keywords = {TELS},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{linn_teaching_2006,
title = {Teaching and Assessing Knowledge Integration in Science},
author = {Marcia C Linn and Hee-Sun Lee and Robert Tinker and Freda Husic and Jennifer L Chiu},
doi = {10.1126/science.1131408},
issn = {0036-8075, 1095-9203},
year = {2006},
date = {2006-08-01},
journal = {Science},
volume = {313},
number = {5790},
pages = {1049-1050},
abstract = {Interactive visualizations combined with online inquiry and embedded assessments can deepen student understanding of complex ideas in science.},
keywords = {MODELS, TELS},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{kali_collaborative_2006,
title = {Collaborative Knowledge Building Using the Design Principles Database},
author = {Yael Kali},
doi = {10.1007/s11412-006-8993-x},
issn = {1556-1607, 1556-1615},
year = {2006},
date = {2006-06-01},
journal = {International Journal of Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning},
volume = {1},
number = {2},
pages = {187-201},
abstract = {In this study we describe a mechanism for supporting a community of learning scientists who are exploring educational technologies by helping them to share and collaboratively build design knowledge. The Design Principles Database (DPD) is intended to be built and used by this community to provide an infrastructure for participants to publish, connect, discuss and review design ideas, and to use these ideas to create new designs. The potential of the DPD to serve as a collaborative knowledge-building endeavor is illustrated by analysis of a CSCL study focused on peer-evaluation. The analysis demonstrates how the DPD was used by the researchers of the peer-evaluation study in three phases. In the first phase, design principles were articulated based on a literature review and contributed to the DPD. In the second phase, a peer-evaluation activity was designed based on these principles, and was enacted and revised in a three-iteration study. In the third phase, lessons learned through these iterations were fed back to the DPD. The analysis indicates that such processes can contribute to collaborative development of design knowledge in a community of the learning sciences. Readers of ijCSCL are invited to take part in this endeavor and share their design knowledge with the community.},
keywords = {TELS},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{bjork_science_2006-1,
title = {The Science of Learning and the Learning of Science},
author = {MARCIA LINN {and} ROBERT C A Bjork},
year = {2006},
date = {2006-03-01},
journal = {APS Observer},
volume = {19},
number = {3},
abstract = {Students' performance during instruction is commonly viewed as a measure of learning and a basis for evaluating and selecting instructional practices. Laboratory findings question that view: Conditions of practice that appear optimal \ldots},
keywords = {TELS},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{casperson_using_2006,
title = {Using Visualizations to Teach Electrostatics},
author = {Janet M Casperson and Marcia C Linn},
doi = {10.1119/1.2186335},
issn = {0002-9505},
year = {2006},
date = {2006-03-01},
journal = {American Journal of Physics},
volume = {74},
number = {4},
pages = {316-323},
keywords = {TELS},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}

@article{bjork_science_2006,
title = {The Science of Learning and the Learning of Science Introducing Desirable Difficulties},
author = {Robert Bjork and Marcia Linn},
year = {2006},
date = {2006-01-01},
journal = {The APS Observer},
volume = {19},
keywords = {MODELS},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}